A/HRC/21/53 fundamental markers of indigenous peoples’ distinctiveness and cohesiveness as peoples. 27 Knowledge of languages is often necessary to enable indigenous individuals to fully participate in their families and communities and to create a sense of belonging. 28 As one submission states, “(y)our language holds your identity, your family’s history, your belonging, roots, how to pass on knowledge and information, names of trees, plants, place, alive, growing.”29 33. Language is the main mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of indigenous knowledge and is one of the signs of life of indigenous peoples’ cultures. It is one of the essential elements of the identity of indigenous peoples. Indigenous women are central to this transmission of knowledge as traditional purveyors in communities in preserving and teaching languages. 34. Many languages are threatened with extinction. UNESCO estimates that at least 43 per cent of the estimated 6,000 languages spoken in the world are endangered,30 of which many are those of indigenous peoples. This is a global challenge, affecting all regions of the world. On the Australian continent, at the time of European settlement, there were an estimated 250 indigenous languages in existence. Statistics suggest that in less than 300 years at least 205 of those 250 languages have either been lost or are at very serious risk of being lost.31 In the Russian Federation, some languages are now spoken by people numbering less than ten. Africa is considered the most linguistically diverse continent in the world, but many of the languages spoken by its indigenous peoples are the most endangered. 35. Small indigenous groups,32 and those groups not formally recognized as indigenous peoples, face additional challenges in their efforts to promote, revitalize and keep their languages. 36. Despite the dismal state of indigenous peoples’ languages generally,33 ongoing negative external influences upon them, and rights in relation to their languages, there is often a lack of State support for their retention and revitalization.34 For example, indigenous peoples’ languages are often not officially recognized in legislation and policy and insufficient funding is available for language revitalization. Even where official efforts are made to adopt bilingual education programmes, implementation can be a problem. 35 37. There are numerous concerns regarding loss of indigenous languages due to the introduction of the mainstream language as the national language, including the exclusive use of mainstream languages in government education systems. 38. Indigenous peoples’ languages are usually spoken by a minority of individuals within a State and have been, historically and today, subject to assimilationist policies including physical repression or punishment of indigenous individuals speaking their languages.36 There are examples of the placement, often forced, of indigenous children into schools, including residential, boarding and day schools, to teach them non-indigenous 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Submission from Fernand de Varennes. Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada). Robyn Lucienne and the National Congress of Australia’s First Peoples. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/. Note also the submission from Mexico. Submission from National Congress of Australia’s First Peoples. Submission from Norway. Submission from Fernand de Varennes. Submission from Valerie Galley. Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada). Submission from Robyn Lucienne. 9