E/CN.4/1987/35 page 18 without justification. The restrictions on the training of religious leaders can lead to a serious shortage of clergymen. This sometimes brings about an increased dependence on the part of certain religious groups on "lay brothers" for taking charge of individual parishes. However, these "lay brothers" are not always officially recognized by the authorities, and as a result proceedings may be instituted for unlawful observances. 57. The freedom to observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays and ceremonies in accordance with the precepts of one's religion or belief (art. 6 (h)) is particularly significant since it allows the faithful to perform a series of ceremonies and religious customs that often have cultural and traditional connotations, it is precisely this cultural aspect that is often viewed with suspicion by the authorities and combated by them. Thus, in one country, the religious practice of the circumcision of male children is not permitted; similarly, obstacles are placed in the way of religious traditions such as the celebration of marriage and funeral ceremonies according to the rites of a religion. In another country, certain rites and ceremonies peculiar to tribal religions have been banned. Elsewhere, it is extremely difficult in practice for the followers of a certain religion to bury their dead in accordance with religious ritual. Sometimes a conflict of interest is visible between religious requirements and health requirements, particularly in the case of children. Thus, in one country, the courts decided in certain cases against ritual practices when the latter were believed to constitute a direct danger to children's lives. On occasion, the conflict arises from the fact that the authorities fail to take account, in certain areas, of religious requirements concerning days of rest. In one country, a petition was presented to the authorities to enable the members of a sect to be exempted from sitting for examinations on a certain week-day considered by their faith as a complete day of rest, to which the authorities agreed. 58. Finally, the freedom to establish and maintain communications with individuals and communities in matters of religion or belief at the national and international levels (art. 6 (i)) is also sometimes disregarded by the authorities who, as mentioned earlier in chapter IV, section A.3, tend in some cases to equate members of communities who maintain communications with individuals or communities on religious matters at the international level with "foreign agents". Also at the national level, certain countries forbid conferences of a religious nature or sermons preached in public for which official permission has not been sought, or place obstacles in the way of various contacts established by believers with a view to propagating their religious faith. Another example of restriction is that placed on the holding of congresses at the local or national levels; thus, in a particular country, such congresses which, by law, may be convened by special permission, in effect take place only very infrequently. 2. Discriminatory treatment on the grounds of religion or belief (arts. 2 and 3 of the Declaration) 59. Article 2 of the Declaration prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief towards anyone by any State, institution, group of persons or persons. Intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief are defined, in the Declaration as "any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on religion or belief and having as its purpose or as its effect nullification or impairment of the recognition, enjoyment and exercise