A/HRC/32/50 29. Specifically, xenophobia must also be understood as rooted in particular histories and political projects. For example, in the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action, Member States of the United Nations identified the slave trade and colonialism as major sources and manifestations of xenophobia, and of other related forms of intolerance. Hence, vestiges of slavery, systems of apartheid, colonialism, and the displacement or genocide of indigenous peoples in the construction of the nation State are proper intersections to consider in addressing the phenomenon of xenophobia, where whole peoples were left outside the national project or marginalized. Significantly, we must avoid presuming that histories of inclusion and exclusion exist mainly or only in relation to national territories. One of the legacies of colonialism is fragmented polities based on exclusion and distrust among fellow citizens. Political projects related to nation-building or to the formation or maintenance of regional political communities can also produce xenophobic rhetoric. This xenophobic rhetoric, especially when espoused by political and other leaders, can be a factor in the incitement of attacks against — or other forms of abuse of — “outsiders” however defined. 30. In the current era of increased mobility, manifestations of xenophobia are both myriad and alarmingly on the rise. Increasingly widespread forms of overt physical violence, hate speech, and intentional, implicit and structural discrimination are rooted in xenophobia. Xenophobia can refer to explicitly held prejudice expressed verbally or violently and can also be manifested through a wider range of discriminatory practices, policies and structures. While many forms of xenophobia relate to exclusion from a national territory, xenophobia may also be manifest in efforts to exclude groups from areas of a country, of a city or even of a neighbourhood. It may also appear in efforts to exclude persons or particular groups from accessing public or private services, institutions or resources. Regardless of the way in which it manifests itself, xenophobia violates the fundamental principles of equality and non-discrimination that are at the core of international human rights law. 31. Similarly, certain socioeconomic conditions are strongly correlated — but not determinative — of xenophobic sentiments and acts. It was stressed in the Durban Declaration, for example, that “poverty, underdevelopment, marginalization, social exclusion and economic disparities”27 were closely associated with xenophobia and other forms of related intolerance. Perceived and actual material scarcity, heightened by economic crises, has in some cases contributed to increased manifestations of xenophobia, as “insiders” seek to exclude “outsiders” whom they view as undeserving competitors for public and private resources. While such conditions may increase the likelihood of xenophobia, they do not determine its presence or form. 32. A range of different actors may contribute to xenophobic discrimination, including individuals acting alone, individuals acting in concert through informal groups, or formal collectives which can include religious, political and economic organizations. Among these actors are politicians, law enforcement and border control agents, including private security forces, and even persons from the media, who may contribute to the stigmatization of certain groups. Xenophobia may also be embedded in legal and policy frameworks, and in institutions, that have either the purpose or the effect of discriminating against those considered “outsiders” or foreigners, thereby denying them enjoyment of fundamental rights and freedoms. 33. In the Durban Declaration, Member States of the United Nations noted that “xenophobia against non-nationals, particularly migrants, refugees and asylum seekers, constitutes one of the main sources of contemporary racism” and that “human rights 27 10 Durban Declaration, para. 18.