A/HRC/46/30
online hate speech – where algorithms are made more effective by the addition of human
decision-making – the extent of the training or working definitions and decision-making
processes used by moderators are generally not transparent. Facebook’s oversight board
model is a partial improvement in this regard, although it has a limited mandate; it will be
involved in a very small fraction of content moderation decisions and its decisions “stand
alone” rather than representing binding precedent.
The Special Rapporteur finds it is problematic that moderation data sets are often
considered trade secrets by the companies that develop them. This means that most attempts
to judge the scope of Islamophobia on online networks, or the efficacy of current solutions,
depend almost entirely upon data the company concerned chooses to provide, which is often
inadequately disaggregated, if available at all, and extremely difficult to verify independently.
C.
Best practices
The Special Rapporteur notes that many Governments have taken steps to combat
Islamophobia and have pledged to strengthen their efforts. The Council of Europe172 and
some States, including Malta, 173 Norway 174 and Sweden 175 have adopted policy
recommendations or action plans for addressing religion-based discrimination and prejudice
generally or Islamophobia specifically. The European Commission has established the
position of Coordinator on combating anti-Muslim hatred.176 The authorities in Barcelona,
Spain,177 and Victoria, Australia,178 have developed regional action plans. Typically, such
plans include educational outreach, capacity-building and measures to prevent and prosecute
for hate crimes. The action plan of Norway aims to promote dialogue and gather information
about Muslims’ experiences of discrimination and hatred, with police registering hate crimes
that specifically target Muslims.179
Other steps include the establishment of anti-hate crime legislation, indicating a
deliberative response to the phenomenon in several States, including Andorra,180 Croatia,181
Kyrgyzstan, 182 Sweden 183 and Switzerland. 184 In Togo, the legislation prevents religiousbased discrimination.185 Five States have reportedly created specific task forces or trained
police officers to monitor, identify and respond to hate crimes. 186
The Special Rapporteur acknowledges efforts to monitor and facilitate reporting of
Islamophobic incidents, including by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and
Human Rights187 and 10 States.188 The Ministry of Women, the Family and Human Rights of
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173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
18
https://rm.coe.int/ecri-general-policy-recommendation-no-5-on-combating-intolerance-andd/16808b5a76.
Submission by Malta.
Consultation with the International Panel of Parliamentarians for Freedom of Religion or Belief.
Submission by Sweden.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/racismand-xenophobia/combating-anti-muslim-hatred_en.
https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/oficina-afers-religiosos/en/noticia/against-islamophobia_513396;
https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/news/spain-first-municipal-plan-against-islamophobiapioneered-in-barcelona?lang=en.
Submission by the Australian Muslim Advocacy Network.
https://norwaytoday.info/news/norway-launches-new-action-plan-against-discrimination-and-hatredof-muslims/.
Submission by Andorra.
Submission by Croatia.
Submission by Kyrgyzstan.
Submission by Sweden.
Submission by Switzerland.
Submission by Togo.
Submissions by Croatia, Hungary, Mexico, Poland and Sweden.
https://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime/bias-against-muslims.
Australia, Brazil, Canada (www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2020001/article/00003-eng.pdf),
Croatia, Hungary, Poland, Spain
(www.interior.gob.es/documents/642012/3479677/Informe+2018+sobre+la+evoluci%C3%B3n+de+l