A/HRC/13/23 mechanisms can be identified. As regards the choice of a particular electoral system, international law does not impose any specific solution either. The Human Rights Committee has held that “the system must be compatible with the rights protected by article 25 (of the Covenant) and must guarantee and give effect to the free expression of the will of the electors”.32 66. A range of legal and political mechanisms have been used around the world to increase the political participation of minorities at the local, regional and national levels in legislative, executive and administrative bodies. While minority representation is in itself important, consideration must also be given to the mechanisms needed to ensure that minority issues are addressed effectively in the governmental process. 67. Political participation of minorities encompasses a broad range of decision- and policymaking processes and mechanisms in the legislative, executive, self-governance and traditional spheres. Moreover, participation takes place at the local, regional (i.e. subnational), national as well as international levels. 68. Legislative representation is a key mechanism for minority participation, enabling access for minorities to all levels of legislative representation in national parliaments, regional legislatures and local, municipal assemblies. 69. Access to membership in viable political parties is important for the effective mobilization of minorities in the political process, both in elections and in the conduct of the business of the legislature and administrative bodies. In some countries ethnicity-based or faith-based political parties are prohibited by law or greatly discouraged. In other countries, minorities or religious groups may either have their own political parties, or their interests may be represented by mainstream parties. The nature of the electoral system may impact on the nature of political parties and the way in which minority interests are, or are not, addressed. Both types of parties have advantages and disadvantages for minorities: minority-focused parties may address minority issues but they will risk having fewer resources and less political influence and may, if narrowly focused, increase the public perception of minorities and minority issues as marginal. Of course, political party platforms that are racist in content violate international law whether adopted by minority or majority parties. 70. Unless the minority population constitutes a majority in an electoral district, the election of representatives of minority-based parties is more likely to be successful under proportional representation systems, where the cumulative votes of minorities are taken into account.33 Reducing the registration requirements for political parties may facilitate the creation of new minority-focused parties. 71. Minorities also face challenges when participating in majority parties. Even if they do address minority issues, majority parties may not prioritize in their broader agendas, or may lose sight of, those issues important to minority communities. Certain types of electoral systems or political structures may make it advantageous or necessary for political parties to obtain the support of a broad spectrum of voters; this can create incentives for mainstream parties to address minority interests and/or select minority candidates to broaden their appeal. Mainstream political parties may also have internal diversity programmes, including training and mentoring, in order to encourage an increase in the number of minority politicians and activists. Where the electoral system requires parties to present a list of candidates for election, as opposed to single-candidate constituencies, there may be a legal or policy requirement that the list be ethnically mixed or have a minimum 32 33 GE.10-10198 Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996), para. 21. Ghai, p. 15. 17