A/68/296 propels the projection of a common culture, language and history or, more specifically, a desired image of the past, to construct a unique imaginary foundation as the core of the nation. 1 20. Such processes are usually shaped by the desire to present the past of one’s own people or nation as better than it may have been. Darker episodes from the past tend to be omitted, minimized or justified, in particular when they relate to crimes against humanity and genocides, colonization and slavery, wars and civil strife, occupations and conquests, and grave violations of human rights. Policies may sometimes stipulate that a positive outlook is to be adopted in interpreting the past, impeding a critical approach. 21. In the twentieth century, a massive rewriting of history accompanied the emergence of numerous independent States after decolonization and the development, and subsequent abolition, of authoritarian and totalitarian political systems. Today, in a world accustomed to ideological conflicts, historical narratives have become an integral part of the agenda and rhetoric of various political actors at the local, regional and international levels. It is therefore important to ensure that diverse viewpoints are heard, so as to simultaneously combat mechanisms that allow for the manipulation of history. 22. State practices leading to revisionism, meaning intentional, tendentious and politically orchestrated changes of the images of the past impervious to evidence, are of concern. Such practices include fabricating historical facts and highlighting and decontextualizing facts that confirm the desired narrative while omitting those that question it. Revisionism often occurs during or after major political upheavals. Too frequently, the diversity of historical facts and interpretations is replaced by a single interpretation of the past that accords with a particular philosophy or ideology. In many cases, the State’s promotion of a single interpretation is reinforced by banning or systematically marginalizing alternative narratives. 2 23. The reconstruction of human history to fit a particular world view is a phenomenon in all societies. The question is whether, and to what extent, access to resources or historical facts and earlier interpretations is obstructed and whether space is given to articulate differences freely without fear of punishment. Even without deliberate manipulation, history teaching is not exempt from bias and, too often, the diversity of historical narratives is insufficiently acknowledged. Democratic and liberal societies too must question their existing paradigms from the perspective of ensuring a multi-voice narrative inclusive of, and accessible to, all. 24. Sharp disagreements over the past can fuel contemporary tensions between communities or countries. Specific cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur are numerous and concern regions across the world. They include NorthEast Asia, where intense conflicts between China, Japan and the Republic of Korea stem from interpretations of the period of Japanese domination before or during the Second World War. Controversies over history writing and teaching are also intense in South Asia, as well as in the Middle East, in particular between Israel and the __________________ 1 2 8/27 See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, revised ed. (London, Verso, 1991), p. 74. See Karl R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (London, Routledge, 1945). 13-42291