working group or other mechanism of the United Nations to study the problems of racial discrimination faced by people of African descent”. To this end, the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/68 of 25 April 2002. Its mandate is, inter alia, to make proposals on the elimination of racial discrimination against Africans and people of African descent in all parts of the world. The need to ensure that minorities are treated equally and enjoy human rights and fundamental freedoms without discrimination of any kind was reiterated by the Durban Review Conference, which in its Outcome Document “urges States to bolster measures to eliminate the barriers and to broaden access to opportunities for greater and more meaningful participation by […] persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities in the political, economic, social and cultural spheres of society”. D. Effective and meaningful participation The participation of persons belonging to minorities in public affairs and in all aspects of the political, economic, social and cultural life of the country where they live is in fact essential to preserving their identity and combating social exclusion. Mechanisms are required to ensure that the diversity of society with regard to minority groups is reflected in public institutions, such as national parliaments, the civil service sector, including the police and the judiciary, and that persons belonging to minorities are adequately represented, consulted and have a voice in decisions which affect them or the territories and regions in which they live. Participation must be meaningful and not merely symbolic, and recognize, for instance, that minorities are commonly underrepresented and that their concerns may not be adequately addressed. The participation of women belonging to minorities is of particular concern. Participation must be effective. During its second session, on 12 and 13 November 2009, the Forum on Minority Issues focused on minorities and effective political participation. A key reference for the session was article 2 (2) of the United Nations Minorities Declaration, which provides for the right of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities “to participate effectively in cultural, religious, social, economic and public life”. For the participation of persons belonging to minorities to be effective, it is not sufficient for States to ensure their formal participation; States must also ensure that the participation of representatives of minorities has a substantial influence on the decisions which are taken, so that there is, as far as possible, shared ownership of these decisions.10 10 See A/HRC/13/23, para. 52, in which the independent expert on minority issues refers to: Council of Europe, Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 12