A/HRC/7/23 page 7 16. The independent expert’s evaluation of minority issues in the context of denial or deprivation of citizenship is based on the Declaration on Minorities of 1992 and other relevant international standards, from which she has identified four broad areas of concern relating to minorities globally: (a) the protection of a minority’s survival and existence within a territory or State, including through combating violence against them, forced expulsion and genocide; (b) the protection and promotion of the cultural identity of minority groups and the right of national, ethnic, religious or linguistic groups to enjoy their collective identity and to reject forced assimilation; (c) the guarantee of the rights to non-discrimination and equality, including ending structural or systemic discrimination and the promotion of affirmative action when required; and (d) the guarantee of their right to effective participation in public life, especially with regard to decisions that affect them. 17. The denial or deprivation of citizenship as a policy or a tool of discrimination against minorities speaks to all of these key elements of minority rights, and is therefore also central to the work of the independent expert. 18. In the section below, the independent expert considers the historical and political context, the development of the problem and concerns posed for minorities and for States. Section IV examines the application of international human rights law in the context of discriminatory denial or deprivation of citizenship. In section V, she considers the consequences of denial or deprivation of citizenship with respect to the human rights of minorities. Section VI provides examples of affected minorities around the world and identifies specific actions which have been directed against them. Recent positive initiatives are also highlighted. In section VII, the independent expert considers relevant activities of international, regional and national actors in regard to the issue. The report concludes with a series of recommendations. For the purposes of the present report, “nationality” and “citizenship” are used as synonymous terms under public international law. 19. The country- and community-specific examples provided in the present report were chosen to illustrate the issues affecting many more minority communities in all regions. They are not presented as being the most problematic situations or as an exhaustive survey. III. HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL CONTEXT 20. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), close to 15 million people in more than 49 countries are stateless and numbers appear to be increasing.3 A great many stateless persons today are members of minority groups. Evidence from all regions demonstrates that many additional minority populations live in highly thus: those who are prevented from becoming citizens, either at birth or later, are denied citizenship; those who lose or are stripped of their citizenship previously held have been deprived of citizenship. 3 UNHCR, “The Excluded”, Refugees, No. 147, issue 3, 2007, p. 2.