A/HRC/7/23 page 16 48. Under such conditions, not only do individuals lose but so do States, in aggregate terms. In addition to the dramatic effects of instability and conflict, States lose in terms of lower economic output and a reduced fiscal base. Denied full access to higher education and skilled employment, persons belonging to minorities cannot contribute to their full potential. Under conditions of repression and following programmes of denationalization, States risk creating situations where restrictions on educational and employment opportunities encourage brain drain and flight. In extreme situations, repercussions can be severe for members of particular minority groups, society as a whole, and the wider stability of the State. VI. REGIONAL PRACTICES 49. While examples of exclusionary citizenship practices are numerous in all regions, the section below only provides a brief discussion of a number of country and community examples considered during the expert consultation. These are not presented as an exhaustive list of cases, nor as the most egregious. Rather, the examples discussed below include a number of promising recent developments. However, they remain mere first steps in the right direction. A. Africa 50. The issue of citizenship is often particularly complex in Africa because borders were drawn by colonial powers with little regard for the peoples inhabiting the continent. Most African States are pluri-ethnic and multicultural. As is set out below, in some cases, minority populations were never included in the body of citizens, while in others they were initially considered citizens and then intentionally excluded. In recent years, the increasing prevalence of multiparty democracy has meant that some politicians have been tempted to denationalize specific individuals and entire minority groups for partisan political advantage. At the same time, the growing emphasis on national security has meant that people increasingly need to possess proof of their identity. However, nomadic and semi-nomadic populations often have links with several States but may be unable to prove they possess the nationality of any of them because they were never registered at birth and were not issued with personal identity documents. 51. In Côte d’Ivoire, the question of disputed citizenship is at the heart of the civil war that has its origins in the mid-1990s, when political leaders reportedly began manipulating the interpretation of ambiguous citizenship provisions to effectively denationalize a large swathe of the Ivorian population and exclude political candidates on that basis, while at the same time amending the electoral law and Constitution to disqualify certain individuals from running for office under the concept of ivoirité. The conflict in Côte d’Ivoire has been attributed to eligibility for citizenship of some 3 million immigrant residents, the exploitation of ethnicity for political gain and competition for land resources between “indigenous” and “immigrant” communities.25 Some optimism stems from the 2007 Ouagadougou peace agreement. Pursuant to that agreement, the National Unity Government has conducted late birth registrations and issued birth certificates which can be used to establish nationality. Renewed peace and stability will greatly depend on the success of this process. 25 Human Rights Watch, 2007 World Report, Côte d’Ivoire, p. 103.