A/75/211 non-recognition can be used as a justification for discriminatory and other hum an rights abuses, such as when freedom of religion is only extended to persons belonging to constitutionally recognized religions and not all religious or belief minorities. 55. The self-identification of persons may be involved in matters of forced conversion or denial of membership, whether individuals are free to belong or not to belong to a religious or belief minority, and indeed of non -exclusive individual selfidentification, as in the case of language. A French agnostic may still consider himself or herself Jewish in a cultural sense and for some purposes, while a Singaporean may easily identify as both a Buddhist and Taoist. 56. A particular issue concerning non-religious minorities is whether they must involve sizeable or cohesive communities or have a sense of solidarity in order to constitute a religious or belief minority. As the Special Rapporteur indicated in his 2019 definition (see para. 20 above) and in his observations to the Human Rights Committee and others, the concept of minorities, except in the case of national minorities as will be discussed, is not subject to a community’s size, permanency or traditional presence in a State’s territory. The concept of religion or belief is therefore not limited to traditional religions, to religions and beliefs with institutional characteristics or to practices analogous to those of traditional religions. Therefore, religious or belief minorities should be interpreted broadly, 21 encompass a variety of religious or belief systems, including newly established religions and non-traditional beliefs, spiritual practices or shamanistic belief systems, as well as non-religious individuals, whether or not they are part of formal institutional or community structures. 57. Three further points should be highlighted. First, the concept of “religion or belief” does not exclude overlaps with minority cultural or linguistic categories. Minorities of religion or belief may include worship or sacred t exts in a language differing from that of the majority. Furthermore, a religious or belief minority may have its own specific literature, symbols, rites, customs and observances, including holidays, dietary codes, pilgrimage and many other activities that could also be referred to as cultural. As often indicated in the present report, the identification of a person as belonging to a minority does not exclude multiple or overlapping situations of belonging to more than one category for many in the daily experience of minorities. This is why an intersectional approach that recognizes the many different elements that forms an individual’s identity is essential in relation to matters involving religion or belief as well as culture and language. 58. A second issue occurs not infrequently in relation to situations where individuals are not allowed to leave or where an individual’s rejection of his or her membership of a particular religious or belief group, including that of the majority, is prohibited or even punishable by death in some cases, or where there may be obstacles owing to no official “existence” or recognition of a particular religion or belief. Individuals in such situations cannot convert or belong to a religious or belief minority, once again raising the obstacle of authorities – or others – preventing individuals from freely self-identifying as belonging to a minority (or to a majority). The Human Rights Committee has firmly established that individuals are free to choose a minority or majority reli gion or belief, including the right to replace one’s current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views, as well as the right to retain one’s religion or belief. 22 59. Third, a small number of States stated in their submissions that their understanding of minorities did not include religious groups. None of the States elaborated on the reasons for such an omission, other than occasionally suggesting that the concept of a minority in their jurisdiction is restricted to traditional, national __________________ 21 22 20-09835 See HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1, General Comment 23, para. 5.3. See HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1, General Comment 22, para. 5. 15/20