A/HRC/41/38 violence. Other women returned to Bangladesh without receiving their full salaries or access to remedies for the violations they had experienced (A/HRC/26/38/Add.2, para. 24). Women may be looked at with suspicion and suspected of “misconduct” while living abroad, both by family members and possibly by society at large. 72 Some migrant women who return with disabilities, physical and psychological problems and illnesses may face difficulties in their reintegration. Others may not be able to manage their earnings upon return, which also means that they have limited funds for investments or for exploring selfemployment opportunities. That is not what their families and society are expecting from them after they have worked and earned abroad. 75. Upon return, migrant women may also find it challenging to re-establish close links with their children and partners. 73 This can partly be due to different stances regarding human rights issues, such as gendered expectations of women in the family, equal access to education or the minimum age of marriage. In a study conducted in 2007, it was found that Moldovan women were more likely to resist partner violence after observing norms in destination countries, which could change the dynamics in their relationships. 74 When migrant women return, they tend to renegotiate the terms of their relationships, particularly in relation to issues such as domestic violence. 76. The specific needs of migrant women and girls after their return have to be taken into consideration in order to enable their full reintegration. A returning woman may be a mother, may have suffered mental or physical trauma abroad, or may have specific medical needs. It is important to take those factors, and the attitudes of the community of origin, into account before returning any migrant, paying specific attention to the needs and vulnerabilities of women and girls in order to facilitate a reintegration process worthy of its name. IV. Conclusions and recommendations 77. Migrant women, who comprise half of the total migrant population in the world, provide important social and economic contributions to their countries of origin and destination. For many women and girls, migration provides opportunities for their economic and social development. Migration experiences can contribute to the empowerment of women and girls by increasing their self-confidence, autonomy and control over their lives. Their exposure to different gender norms may contribute to the achievement of gender equality in their societies of origin. 78. However, circumstances such as discriminatory social and cultural norms and policies have contributed to the specific vulnerabilities of migrant women and girls. Many are disproportionately affected by gender-based discrimination, abuse and violations of their rights during migration. A limited understanding of the realities faced by migrant women and girls affects the ability of States to formulate and implement gender-responsive migration laws, policies and programmes, and ensure that women and girls can enjoy their human rights throughout their migration journey. 79. The Special Rapporteur stresses that it is the States’ responsibility and in their interest to respect, protect and fulfil the human rights of all migrant women and girls, and to ensure gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Global Compact for Migration. 80. In order to ensure respect for the rights of migrant women and girls, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States: 72 73 74 18 Sijapati, “Women’s labour migration from Asia and the Pacific”, p. 9. O’Neil, Fleury and Foresti, “Women on the move”, p. 5. See M. Peleah, “The impact of migration on gender roles in Moldova” in Gender Roles in Transition 8 (2007).