A/HRC/14/43 C. Political manipulation of racist or nationalist ideology in ethnic conflicts 19. The claim that ethnic conflicts have deep roots in history has long been used as a standard argument to explain the origins of these conflicts. While it may be true that history has a role to play in fostering ethnic enmities and that unaddressed past grievances may lead to conflict, the Special Rapporteur takes the view that a large number of ethnic conflicts are products of political manipulation of racist or nationalist ideology. Provided certain structural conditions exist, the elite of a group which perceives a threat to its interests and values will find playing the racist or nationalist card extremely useful in mobilizing members of its group and reaffirming its authority, as well as its legitimacy, to protect the ethnic or national interests at stake. Old histories and myths may thus be revived from a specific perspective in order to clearly define insiders and outsiders and to remind members of the group about past grievances or humiliations which remain to be redressed. Consequently, racism and xenophobia may be deliberately stirred up for political gains. 20. Yet the “success” of such political manipulation and the risk of ethnic conflict very much depend on certain existing structural conditions in a given country, such as unmet human development needs, the socio-economic deprivation of some groups relative to others and the absence or weakness of the rule of law and democratic structures, as well as political institutions which are not representative of the population. On this last point, the Special Rapporteur believes that meaningful participation of minorities in political institutions is essential to prevent and defuse tensions which may lead to situations of conflict within a given society. However, participation should not be limited to governmental institutions. As stated by the independent expert on minority issues, “the full and effective participation of minorities in all areas of public life is a concept that encompasses not only participation in political decision-making at both local and national levels but also requires that persons belonging to minorities should be given the means to participate effectively in the social and economic spheres of their societies and the right to equal access to public services”12 21. The role of the media is also pivotal in preventing or fostering conflict. As stated by the Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, “the power of the media to create and destroy fundamental human values comes with great responsibility. Those who control such media are accountable for its consequences”.13 As such, when racist or nationalist ideology is resorted to by members of the political elite in power, it is more likely for a conflict to erupt in cases where government institutions monopolize the means of provision of information and where few public forums allow for the free and constructive exchange of ideas. In those circumstances, government institutions may use the existing media to provide misinformation and incite antagonism and hatred between certain groups of the population. On the contrary, in cases where the media offer a great variety of views and opinions, it is more likely that racist or nationalist ideology will have a more limited impact on the population. 22. The conflict in the Balkans in the 1990s illustrates how political manipulation of racist or nationalist ideology may act as an immediate factor triggering conflict. In the years preceding the war, historical events were very much used in a biased manner by some members of the political elite to incite antagonism and hatred between the Serbian and Albanian communities. For instance, the 1389 Kosovo Polje battle and the concept of 12 13 GE.10-12566 Forum on Minority Issues, second session (12–13 November 2009), summary by the Chairperson of the Forum, p. 4. Available from www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/minority/docs/ SummaryChairperson2ndForum.pdf. Prosecutor v. Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, Hassan Ngeze, case No. ICTR-99-52T, Summary, para. 8. Available from www.ictr.org/ENGLISH/cases/Barayagwiza/. 9