A/HRC/48/75 Government granted special autonomy in October 2001. On 12 June 2021, the Papuan People’s Assembly met with the coordinating minister for political, legal and security affairs to submit input on the draft special autonomy law.83 Even self-determination processes under the decolonization process are not necessarily smooth. As New Caledonia goes through a process of decolonization from France, negotiated with indigenous peoples, there have been ongoing debates about the right to vote of the Kanak people, self-determination and indigeneity. Under the Nouméa Accord, the third of three referendums will most likely be held in 2022. 38. While the path to self-determination is often difficult, the realization of indigenous people’s human right to self-determination has demonstrable links to improved outcomes for indigenous peoples. In assessing the impact of COVID-19 on indigenous peoples, the Expert Mechanism observed that there was a correlation between how well indigenous peoples were faring during the pandemic and their ability to exercise their right to self-determination: the closer a State was to achieving the ends of the Declaration, the better indigenous peoples would fare.84 Early impact assessments have reported improvements in youth development and adult empowerment, with a significant return on investment in terms of impact on the justice system and a broader social and economic impact for the community. 85 39. There is a direct link between self-determination and indigenous peoples’ rights over their own lands and resources. Indigenous peoples with recognized land and resource rights and peoples with treaties, agreements or other constructive arrangements with States have had greater success in conducting beneficial relations with private sector natural resource companies on the basis of free, prior and informed consent than have peoples without recognized rights.86 The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development has concluded “that when Native nations make their own decisions about what development approaches to take, they consistently outperform external decision-makers” in areas such as governmental form, natural resources management, economic development, health care and social services.87 40. Some indigenous peoples see the denial of their right to self-determination, frequently through lack of respect for treaty and other relationships, as a root cause of atrocities, such as residential schools, murdered and missing indigenous women and girls or stolen children, as well as the negative impacts on health, economic and social well-being and justice. Some suggest that lasting peace cannot be secured without the realization of self-determination and suggest increased self-determination as a means of moving towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 16, with the objective of promoting inclusive and peaceful societies and reducing inequalities.88 Others point to the need to respect the right to self-determination as a crucial step towards reconciliation.89 VIII. Citizenship and political participation 41. Indigenous citizenship, which includes citizenship of their own people and citizenship of the nation State, and political participation have been described as an offshoot of exercising self-determination rights by indigenous people. Citizenship is exercised through the guarantee of the right to participation. 90 Different indigenous peoples have different approaches to indigenous citizenship: for some, they are citizens first of their nation or people and of the State second, whereas others only identify with the dominant group in a limited way. In some countries, the only way that indigenous peoples can express themselves politically is through political engagement. However, the engagement of indigenous peoples 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 12 Statement made by Indonesia at the fourteenth session of the Expert Mechanism. See A/HRC/46/72; and submission from Alianz Ecuador. See www.justreinvest.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Maranguka-Justice-Reinvestment-ProjectKPMG-Impact-Assessment-FINAL-REPORT.pdf; and A/73/176. See E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2002/3. See A/69/267. Submission from the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization; see also A/73/176. Submission from the Canadian Coalition. Submission from Ecuador.