A/HRC/31/56 V. Situation of caste-affected women and girls 95. Caste is one of the factors that result in multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination against certain groups of women. 93 Women and girls from low castes are particularly vulnerable to violation and denial of their rights in both public and private life. 96. They are often the victims of caste-based violence, particularly sexual violence.94 A study95 identified 12 major forms of violence against Dalit women: nine in the community (physical assault, verbal abuse, sexual harassment and assault, rape, sexual exploitation, forced prostitution, kidnapping or abduction, forced incarceration and medical negligence), and three within the family (female feticide and infanticide, child sexual abuse and domestic violence). 97. Available data indicate that caste-based violence against women and girls, in particular sexual violence, may be increasing. Violence and the threat of violence are frequently hidden and go unreported in villages and rural areas, forming a culture of invisibility, silence and impunity which, in many instances, places the burden of shame on victims instead of perpetrators. 98. Women from disadvantaged caste groups are also the main victims of trafficking,96 and are especially vulnerable to early and/or forced marriage, 97 bonded labour98 and harmful cultural practices. Accusations of witchcraft are sometimes made to deprive Dalit women of their basic economic and social rights, including access to land and their assets. 99 99. Atrocities against women from marginalized castes are often committed when they try to assert their rights and challenge caste and gender norms. 100 Perpetrators include dominant caste landlords, police officers, doctors and teachers, with the “punishment” both being expressive of caste outrage and intended to teach the woman and her community a lesson.101 100. Dalit women face obstacles in accessing formal justice systems. These include the refusal by police officers to register criminal complaints or delays in filing complaints, lack of proper investigation into complaints of violence and ill-treatment, and insensitivity by law enforcement officials.102 101. Women from caste-affected communities, particularly in rural areas, are often excluded from political processes and relegated to secondary or subordinate roles in decision-making. It is reported that rural Dalit women holding seats in the local panchayat 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 25 (2004) on article 4 (1) of the Convention (temporary special measures), para. 12; and general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention, para. 18. See A/HRC/26/38/Add.1, para. 15, and A/HRC/26/38/Add.2, para. 16. Aloysius Irudayam and others, “Dalit women speak out, violence against Dalit women in India” (National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, 2006), pp. 3-4. See A/HRC/26/38/Add.1, para. 28. See A/HRC/29/40, para. 23. Anti-Slavery International, Poverty, Discrimination and Slavery. See A/HRC/20/16, para. 39. Evidence, “Atrocities against Dalit women and access to justice”(2011), p. 4. International Dalit Solidarity Network and others, “Violence against Dalit women”, briefing note for the eleventh session of the Human Rights Council. Minority Rights Group International, written contribution to the general discussion on access to justice at the fifty-fourth session of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (2013). 19