A/HRC/41/55 supremacists, noting that the groups were trying to determine what young men were angry about and how they could leverage that to bring about a broad-based social movement.43 24. Spaces in the gaming world are more popular for neo-Nazi recruitment than are platforms such as Facebook, possibly due to the latter’s tracking mechanisms. That said, hate groups still use platforms such as Facebook to find like-minded individuals, show support for each other and disseminate their propaganda. 44 Micro-blogging sites like Twitter appear more convenient for right-wing extremist groups, as the identity of the source of the tweets is harder to trace, thus increasing the communication potential for recruiters.45 25. Research shows that the typical neo-Nazi or hate group follower is generally young, white and male. Religion, economic class, education and social status are also salient factors.46 It is important to note, however, that no meaningful psychological profile exists for predicting whether a person will have an inclination towards terrorism. Furthermore, research shows that no one is born with personality traits that define a person as inclined towards extremism or terrorism. Relevant socioenvironmental factors may include poverty; a lack of education and employment opportunities, technical skills and family support; alienation; and dysfunctional family relationships.47 26. In the literature of psychology on extremism, a broad consensus has emerged that social situational factors – not personal traits – determine extremist behaviour. Factors such as social identity formation, acculturation, social influence and normative pressure from group membership strongly affect psychologically vulnerable individuals. Social networks can determine individual choices, including whether to engage in pro- or antisocial behaviour.48 Studies show that young people’s motives to join hate groups are not primarily ideological or political. They were linked rather to social and emotional reasons and the search for affiliation, protection, acknowledgement and adventure. 49 27. Some studies show that frustration of certain psychological needs often motivate young individuals to find comfort through membership in racist extremist groups. 50 The need to belong is one of the most basic psychological needs of human beings, and the search for belonging, community and meaning can lead young people to join violent extremist groups. 51 Such groups may also afford those young people a sense of safety, including protection from being bullied or tormented by others.52 28. Research also indicates that when the ability to fulfil the need for control, meaning and certainty is threatened, some individuals are more likely to endorse extreme views and behaviours, including violent attitudes. For instance, when people feel uncertain about their situation, life or identity, they tend to be more likely to be drawn to extreme protest groups,53 support retaliatory, aggressive State policies against out-groups,54 and are more 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Ibid. Alava and others, Youth and Violent Extremism, p. 15. Ibid., p. 16. Kallis, Zeiger and Öztürk, Violent Radicalisation, p. 15. Submission received from the American Psychological Association, pp. 6–7. Ibid.; submission received from Sweden. Odén, “The way out”, p. 6. Pete Simi, Karyn Sporer and Bryan F. Bubolz, “Narratives of childhood adversity and adolescent misconduct as precursors to violent extremism: a life-course criminological approach” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (2016). See Terre des hommes and West Asia-North Africa (WANA) Institute, “Reconceptualizing the drivers of violent extremism: an agenda for child & youth resilience” (2018). Available at www.tdh.ch/sites/default/files/tdh_wana_pve_en_light.pdf. Odén, “The way out”, p. 6. Michael A. Hogg, Christie Meehan and Jayne Farquharson, “The solace of radicalism: selfuncertainty and group identification in the face of threat”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 46, No. 6 (November 2010). Ifat Maoz and Clark McCauley, “Threat, dehumanization, and support for retaliatory aggressive policies in asymmetric conflict”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 52, No. 1 (2008). 7