A/69/266 F. Political or regime change 34. Political or regime change can create a new political and social order and conditions under which minorities may be placed at a heightened risk of violence. The Arab Spring in several countries, while initially hailed as a popular revolution against hard-line, autocratic regimes, in practice created new uncertainties for some minorities and, in some cases, increased hostility and violence against minorities, including minority Muslims and Christians. In September 2013, mandate holders addressed a communication 17 to the Government of Egypt, concerning an upsurge of violence against Christian minorities by supporters of ousted President Mohamed Morsi in locations across Egypt. Some 61 churches had been attacked, vandalized and desecrated. Mobs had attacked Christian schools, businesses and homes, and deaths and injuries had been reported. 35. Some attacks may be opportunistic and take place in the context of wider political or social unrest where the normal functioning of law and order has broken down. Following her visit to Ukraine in April 2014, the Special Rapporteur highlighted an escalation of attacks against Roma in the context of ongoing unrest in the eastern and southern regions. 18 In one incident, over 20 men in Slavyansk had entered Roma houses and beaten Roma, demanding money and valuables. Some Roma had been injured and others had reportedly left the region in fear of attack. 36. Where a minority has historically been dominant and has exercised political and socioeconomic or military power over a more numerous majority and is then usurped, there may be a risk of retaliatory violence against that mi nority following regime change. G. Multiple or intersectional discrimination 37. Multiple or intersectional discrimination may increase vulnerability to violence. Minority women and girls are particularly affected by violence, targeted for rape and other forms of sexual violence, torture and killings because of their ethnic or religious identity and their gender. In 2011, the Forum on Minority Issues focused on the rights of minority women and girls and, in its recommendations, 19 highlighted the need for peacekeeping operations and national security forces in regions affected by conflict to pay particular attention to minority women and girls, including through training of staff and police and military personnel on the needs and vulnerability of minority wo men and girls. Minority women should be included in processes of conflict settlement and post-conflict reconstruction. 38. In conflicts in Afghanistan, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guatemala, Iraq, Kyrgyzstan, Myanmar, Somalia, Sri Lanka and the Sudan, minority women have suffered systematic sexual and other violence. Violence against minority women does not always take place in the context of conflict. Women affected by caste-based discrimination in several countries experience high levels of violence owing to their low caste status and gender, and face killing, rape, g ang rape and custodial torture. __________________ 17 18 19 14-58850 https://spdb.ohchr.org/hrdb/24th/public_-_UA_Egypt_02.09.13_(12.2013).pdf. www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14518&LangID=E. See United Nations, Forum on Minority Issues: Compilation of Recommendations of the First Four Sessions 2008 to 2011, chap. IV. Available from www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/ HRCouncil/MinorityIssues/Forum_On_Minority_Pub_en_low.pdf . 11/24