A/HRC/46/30 practices exemptions from legitimate criticism and challenge. 202 Others assert that the working definitions of Islamophobia often miss the point about what it is that is being attacked, as the attack is not against Islam as a faith but against Muslims as a people.203 And some argue that such an endeavour can have chilling effects on freedom of expression because it may stifle legitimate criticism of Islam and serve to demonize and stigmatize those who engage in said criticism. Other scholars and activists argue that the phenomenon is contextually specific, and that a working definition of Islamophobia may entail unforeseen consequences by over-victimizing and homogenizing a diverse range of Muslim experiences and excluding certain perspectives.204 Rather than affirm a particular definition, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes the need for a better conceptual understanding of Islamophobia, its manifestations and its impacts on human rights, including the right to freedom of religion or belief for the purposes of public education, monitoring and responding to the phenomenon. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the need to focus on how anti-Muslim bias, namely Islamophobia, is perpetrated and how it is experienced by Muslim individuals and communities through its different, sometimes cumulative, forms.205 Consistent with article 1 (1) of the Declaration of Principles on Tolerance, he recalls that States are obliged to address these consequences, since tolerance is not only a moral duty but also a political and legal requirement. Moreover, a nuanced approach to understanding Islamophobia will be critical to ensuring that the relevant educational, social and policy responses are identified to effectively address a complex and context-specific challenge, in conformity with international human rights laws and standards. V. Conclusions Both conscious and unconscious bias against Muslims perpetuated by individuals, politicians, social influencers, the media and hate groups, among others, play a significant role in dehumanizing Muslims, motivating hate crimes, promoting discrimination and exacerbating socioeconomic exclusion. Scholars and rights monitors emphasize that Islamophobic attitudes often perpetuate a vicious circle whereby State policies validate private Islamophobic attitudes and actions, and the prevalence of such attitudes can propel State policies that penalize Muslims. Collective blame cast on Muslims for terrorist acts purportedly carried out in the name of Islam, alongside Islamophobic attitudes that draw on negative overgeneralizations about Islam and essentializations of Muslims – which depict them as threatening and centre on constructions of irreconcilable cultural differences between Muslims and the values of majority populations – have fuelled acts of discrimination, hostility and violence against Muslim individuals and communities. The Special Rapporteur recalls that States must protect the rights of religious minorities even if other members of the community engage in intolerant acts. 206 This is particularly relevant when a religious community may be in a minority in one part of the world, and may suffer for it, but may constitute a majority religious community in another part of the world, where it may be accused of intolerance towards local religious minorities. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that international human rights law protects individuals, not religions. Nothing in the present report suggests that criticism of the ideas, leaders, symbols or practices of Islam is something that should be prohibited or criminally sanctioned. Rather, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the discrimination and intolerance that emanate from the ideologies of Islamophobia present a significant challenge to States’ aspirations to foster democratic pluralism and respect, protect and promote all human rights. Peaceful, inclusive, pluralistic societies that endeavour to respect the human 202 203 204 205 206 20 www.worldcat.org/title/thinking-through-islamophobia-global-perspectives/oclc/635463824. www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/014198799329305, p. 898. www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-law-and-religion/article/abs/limits-of-liberal-inclusivityhow-defining-islamophobia-normalizes-antimuslimracism/83F07C7092083A0658B9CD2B9AA7553B. A/HRC/2/3, para. 18. Ibid., para. 26.