A/HRC/55/44 2. Avoiding exclusionary processes 25. The definition of science, while including its distinction from both faith or belief and disinformation and misinformation, must not exclude from scientific discussions reliable knowledge production anchored within predominant narratives. The criteria of “validation” (Recommendation on Science and Scientific Researchers) and “falsifiability” and “verification” (Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 25 (2020), para. 5) must be interpreted in an open and inclusive manner so that their application does not lead to the prevalence of one specific methodology or limit science to a particular historical context. Science may also include traditional knowledge, Indigenous science and other community, public or alternative science, as long as they satisfy broadly the above criteria. Ongoing reflection on such criteria is important to capture the nuances of an evolving concept. As one contribution underlined, science should not be used as an instrument of cultural imposition.29 26. The Special Rapporteur stresses the importance of open science, namely the extended collaboration between scientists and societal actors beyond the scientific community, by opening up practices and tools that are part of the research cycle and by making the scientific process more inclusive and accessible to the broader inquiring society based on new forms of collaboration and work.30 Open science provides the basis for individual and community involvement in the generation of knowledge and the basis for an enhanced dialogue between scientists, policymakers, practitioners, entrepreneurs and community members, giving all stakeholders a voice in developing research that is compatible with their concerns, needs and aspirations. Citizen science (or better called public science) and citizens’ participation have developed as models of scientific research conducted by non-professional scientists, following scientifically valid methodologies and frequently carried out in association with formal, scientific programmes or with professional scientists with web-based platforms and social media, as well as open source hardware and software as important agents of interaction.31 27. Efforts are still needed, however, to make such inclusive understanding of science a reality, as many groups are still excluded. In particular, many Indigenous Peoples call for the recognition of Indigenous sciences as science per se, contesting false hierarchies, prejudices and discrimination against their specific knowledge and highlighting their specific methodologies and tools. Other Indigenous Peoples favour the use of so-called knowledge systems when their systems cut across science, belief and cultural practices and are therefore not universalizable or replicable outside the community. The decision of which concept of the two is used relies on the Indigenous Peoples in question as part of their recognized right to self-determination. 28. Of utmost importance is the eradication of perceptions of Indigenous knowledge “as primitive, inferior, unscientific, superstitious or even dangerous” and the acknowledgment that it can be “a sophisticated set of understandings of no less value than the other kinds of knowledge that often form the foundation of ‘western’ science”. 32 While some level of recognition of Indigenous traditional knowledge and science has been achieved, in particular by means of article 31 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and new initiatives33 or agreements,34 as well as the practice of human rights mechanisms35 and States,36 many areas of disrespect remain unchallenged. Efforts must be made to devise 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 8 See contribution from the Center for Reproductive Rights, p. 18. Recommendation on Open Science, para. 10. Ibid. A/HRC/51/28, para. 8. See contribution from the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. See also https://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/details.jsp?meeting_id=81190. See, for example, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, sect. C, para. 7 (a) and (l); sect. G, goal C; sect. H, targets 13, 21 and 22; and sect. K, para. 22 (a). Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, general recommendation No. 39 (2022) on the rights of Indigenous women and girls, paras. 48 and 52; and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 25 (2020), para. 39. See contributions from Ecuador (in Spanish); Guatemala (in Spanish); and Defensoría del Pueblo de la Nación, República Argentina (in Spanish). GE.24-01813