CONTENTS
PART THREE: PROTECTING MINORITY RIGHTS............................................................ 122
I.. MINORITY RIGHTS AND THE BAN ON DISCRIMINATION........................................................... 123
A.. Minority rights under international law................................................................................126
B.. Who are minorities? ...........................................................................................................127
II.. GROUPS EXPOSED TO RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND ASSOCIATED HARMS............................ 130
A.. Racial discrimination: jus cogens, particularly invidious harm, and the problem of denial......134
B.. Community, autonomy, equality and non-discrimination and harmful practices....................135
III.. RELIGIOUS OR BELIEF MINORITIES AND DISCRIMINATION......................................................... 139
A.. Equality and non-discrimination in the exercise of freedom of religion or belief.....................139
1.. State religion and religious and belief minorities..............................................................140
2.. Equal recognition of minority religious or belief communities and their members..............141
B.. Discrimination on the basis of religion or belief in other areas of life.....................................143
1.. Religious clothing, symbols and the public sphere............................................................144
2.. Religious or belief communities as duty bearers ..............................................................146
3.. Reasonable accommodation and religious practice...........................................................147
4.. Opting out in the field of health......................................................................................148
C.. Discrimination on the basis of other characteristics in situations in which religion is a
pretext................................................................................................................................149
1.. Conscientious objection and its limits..............................................................................149
2.. Family and personal status law: marriage, divorce, inheritance and burial ........................151
3.. Harmful practices...........................................................................................................152
IV.. LANGUAGE, LINGUISTIC MINORITIES, DISCRIMINATION, EQUALITY AND INCLUSION.............. 153
V.. GENUINE AND EFFECTIVE MINORITY PARTICIPATION AND THE BAN ON DISCRIMINATION..... 159
VI..RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES............................................................................................. 161
PART FOUR: DISCRIMINATORY VIOLENCE AND HATE CRIME.............................. 166
PART FIVE: DISCRIMINATION AND EXPRESSION....................................................... 172
I.. ASPECTS OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION DIRECTLY IMPLICATING ANTI-DISCRIMINATION
LAW............................................................................................................................................. 174
II.. HATE SPEECH AND THE BAN ON INCITEMENT TO DISCRIMINATION, HOSTILITY OR
VIOLENCE.................................................................................................................................... 175
A.. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred as well as in relation to disability, gender
expression and gender identity, sex, sexual orientation, sex characteristics or other grounds..... 179
1.. Assessing context............................................................................................................181
2.. Distinguishing the speaker..............................................................................................182
B.. Disseminating ideas based on racial superiority or hatred......................................................183
C.. Incitement to commit genocide............................................................................................184
D.. Incitement to commit terrorist acts ......................................................................................184
E..Defamation.........................................................................................................................184
III.. SANCTIONS FOR INCITEMENT AND OTHER FORMS OF HATE- OR BIAS-BASED EXPRESSION.... 185
IV.. NON-LEGAL MEASURES.............................................................................................................. 186
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