Social and economic participation encompasses a range of policy areas, including employment, education, health care, housing, access to public goods and services, and access to land and property.10 In addition, the development and use of digital technologies, and policies on the use of natural resources, environmental degradation and climate change also have important social and economic implications and may disproportionately affect persons belonging to national minorities.11 States should ensure equal opportunities for all to participate in, and benefit from, the economy, enjoy an adequate standard of living, and have access to social protection and benefits.12 This involves not only removing barriers to the effective social and economic participation of persons belonging to national minorities but also actively promoting and taking steps to ensure their equal access to employment, health care and other spheres of social and economic life, their right to social and economic benefits and outcomes,13 and their right to participate effectively in decisions about social and economic issues. Efforts to promote the effective social and economic participation of minorities help to ensure that societies benefit from the contributions of all their members, thereby increasing economic prosperity and social well-being for all. Strengthening social and economic participation should be part of a cross-sectoral approach to the integration of society. In situations when States seek to express their concerns about the social and economic situation of national minorities in other States, they should do so within the framework of the basic principles of international law, including the conduct of friendly relations.14 Social and economic ties between national minority communities and States with shared ethnic or linguistic affiliation can offer positive benefits, including strengthening inter-State relations. However, support provided to persons residing abroad on a discriminatory or unilateral basis may lead to resentment 10 13 14 Inter alia CoE, European Social Charter (1961) and Revised European Social Charter (1996); and FCNM Advisory Committee (AC), Commentary No. 2 on the Effective Participation of Persons Belonging to National Minorities in Cultural, Social and Economic Life and in Public Affairs (FCNM AC, Commentary on Participation), paragraphs 24 and 50 (2008); OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM), The Ljubljana Guidelines on Integration of Diverse Societies, Guideline 40 (2012) (Ljubljana Guidelines); and OSCE HCNM, The Bolzano/Bozen Recommendations on National Minorities in Inter-State Relations (2008) (Bolzano/Bozen Recommendations). OHCHR, Recommendations of the Forum on Minority Issues at its third session, on “minorities and effective participation in economic life”, paragraphs 9–10 (Geneva 2010) (OHCHR FMI Recommendations, third session). See also: OHCHR, Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), General comment No. 26 on children’s rights and the environment, with a special focus on climate change, Section K “Rights of Indigenous children and children belonging to minority groups”, article 30 (Geneva 2023). See inter alia CRC, article 27; and OHCHR, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), article 28 (Geneva 2006). FCNM AC, Commentary on Participation, paragraphs 26–27. Bolzano/Bozen Recommendations, Recommendation 3. 18 Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National Minorities in Social and Economic Life 11 12