A/HRC/46/57 minorities. In extreme cases, they can even be used to propagate calls for genocide against minorities. Thus, unregulated online expressions of hate can increase the chances of human rights violations taking place offline against some of the most marginalised segments of society. At the same time, some internet companies are responding to pressure to remove online content that is deemed harmful. This can occur through the imposition of intermediary liability, the application of filters, as well automated tools. Some companies have also set their own content standards in this regard. Frequently, however, these measures have the purpose or effect of unlawfully, illegitimately and unnecessarily restricting the exercise of human rights – especially freedom of opinion and expression – online and operate in the absence of any meaningful oversight mechanisms. Furthermore, such measures may have a disproportionate impact upon or even target individuals from marginalised groups, particularly persons belonging to minorities (as well as political opponents, critics, and human rights defenders), while limiting the possibilities for information-sharing, awarenessraising and advocacy for civil society organisations, human rights defenders and representatives of persons belonging to minorities. Moreover, companies’ and social media platforms’ online content moderation policies can lack transparency and any precise and meaningful basis in international human rights standards, raising the possibilities that the decisions made by these actors undermine the human rights of individuals, including those belonging to minority groups. Thus, the fundamental, two-pronged concern first raised by the Rabat Plan of Action in October 2012 (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4) – that members of minorities are effectively persecuted through the abuse of vague domestic legislation, jurisprudence and policies on ‘hate speech’, whereas actual incidents which meet the threshold of incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence under international human rights law are not addressed – has become an even more pressing issue at the beginning of the new decade, one that requires effective and urgent responses from States, social media platform owners, and other stakeholders which are based on international human rights law and standards. Freedom of expression and the essential communication tools and services provided by or dependent on an open and accessible internet must be protected, as minorities and others who are marginalised or vulnerable must be protected from hate speech, incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, and even calls to genocide. Call for submissions In accordance with the established practice of thematic mandate-holders, the Special Rapporteur welcomes inputs by States, UN agencies, regional and international organizations, national human rights institutions, civil society, scholars and research institutions, private companies including those from the ICT sector, and others who may wish to submit for this purpose. Such submissions may include, for instance, recommendations, evidence and case studies. The following questions are intended to guide submissions: 1. Please provide annual disaggregated data since 2017 if possible on hate speech in social media, and in particular hate speech targeting minorities (national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities). Please additionally indicate whether there are future plans to include specifically disaggregated data on hate speech targeting minorities, considering that in most countries, the victims of hate speech on social media are usually members of minorities. 2. Please identify the mechanisms and processes in place to remove, penalise or address hate speech in social media targeting minorities. Please also specify and include any studies or reports assessing their implementation and effectiveness. 3. Please provide (legal and non-legal) examples of good practices of appropriate responses developed by States, internet companies, civil society and other relevant stakeholders to address online ‘hate speech’, including incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, against persons belonging to minorities. Please include assessments, if any, on the effectiveness of these examples. 22