A/HRC/15/37/Add.5 ruling party encouraged and sponsored indigenous performers and artists. Nevertheless, the policy of Sovietization envisioned that indigenous peoples would continue to develop the aesthetic features of their cultural traditions, while integrating into mainstream society in every other way. 11. Thus, indigenous peoples’ traditional leadership structures and communities, their religion, customary law and traditional medicine, and their capacity for self-reliance and economic subsistence built up over hundreds of years were radically affected by the paternalistic and intrusive management and control, forced integration, and “collectivization” during communism. For example, reindeer farming and all other economic activities were transformed into Government-run enterprises; indigenous children were mandatorily placed in boarding schools and taught by Moscow-trained educators; and nomadic communities were forced to settle, leading to increased urbanization. 12. Following the fall of communism, and the abrupt transition to a market economy during Perestroyka, indigenous peoples were in a particularly vulnerable position. Communities experienced something of an organizational void, lacking the former structure imposed by the communist Government, yet unable to shape or define their new role in a drastically shifting political and economic atmosphere. Many indigenous communities suffered extreme hardship with some reaching the brink of extinction during this time, while unemployment, poverty and alcoholism soared. 13. Despite this, the small-numbered indigenous peoples of Russia have been able to preserve their unique and distinctive identities, cultures, languages and traditions. However, notwithstanding governmental and non-governmental efforts to improve the situation of indigenous peoples in the last two decades, and despite some signs of success, deep-rooted problems remain. According to various sources the small-numbered indigenous peoples generally have worse human development indicators than other population segments within the Russian Federation (see part IV.C.4). 14. Additionally, structural conditions complicate the situation of indigenous people in Russia. Indigenous communities are located mostly in the North, Siberia and Far East of Russia: a territory sparsely populated but spanning close to one million square miles and over 60 per cent of Russia. The huge distances that separate indigenous communities from each other and from metropolitan centres, harsh climate conditions, and the lack of easy transportation or communication create conditions of isolation, and present unique obstacles to indigenous peoples’ social, political and economic participation in the larger society. 15. The North, Siberia and Far East are also the areas where most of Russia’s industrialgrade natural resources are located. Russia is one of the world’s top exporters of oil and natural gas, and is understandably continuing to actively explore and develop its rich reserves. Often, this exploitation of natural resources happens close to or on the land indigenous people inhabit or use for hunting, fishing or reindeer herding. The tension between the competing interests of the indigenous peoples and the extractive industries is likely to inform the dynamics of indigenous issues in Russia for a long time in the future. III. Legal and policy framework A. Relevant laws and programmes at the federal level 16. The Russian Federation is a federal, semi-presidential republic with 83 constituent subjects, or political-administrative units. The 1993 Federal Constitution (especially articles 2, and 17–64) articulates a commitment to a range of specific human rights and freedoms. 6 GE.10-14779