in West Africa. He stated that the problem of minorities is and will, in the foreseeable future, remain a major security concern in Africa. He noted that there has been a shift from inter-state conflicts which characterized most part of the late 1980s to mainly intra-state conflicts in recent times, and most intra-state conflicts are in turn related to minority rights issues. He referred to the early warning system in the African Union system, noting that the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union has a continental early warning system, and he added that the west African system (ECOWAS) also has an early warning system. However, he regretted that these systems are military based or state centric, and pay less attention to human rights. Mr. Appiagyei-Atua explained that the war on terror has led to a shift to a securityrooted approach to dealing with concerns of minority groups, where less attention is paid to minority rights issues, and more toward security. He indicated that African states have securitized the environment and are clamping down on minority rights, which is seen as a terrorist issue rather than a human rights issue. He added that the gap between the governments and minorities is filled by terrorist groups. Mr. Appiagyei-Atua recommended that the discussion should be linked to transnational organized crime, including access to weapons, corruption, trafficking, and drugs. Discussion Participants raised issues and presented initiatives, such as: - Socio-economic and political marginalization of minorities can create cycles of deprivation which increase minority insecurity and exposure to violence. Unequal allocation of power can perpetuate grievances amongst minorities, which is exploited for recruitment by armed groups. - Even in contexts where conflict is abating, a lack of access to legal remedies for crimes against minorities is a further contributor to renewed conflict. Steps should be taken to eliminate discrimination in social, economic, and public life, and promote the socioeconomic development and political participation of marginalised minority groups. Abuses or injustices against minorities should also be recognised, addressed, and remedied without bias. - Having minorities included in planning, decision-making and implementation processes is a prerequisite for sustainable, peaceful development of societies. Equal participation of minorities at all levels of society and ensuring non-discrimination, is an effective tool in preventing conflicts. The meaningful participation of women, girls and youth should be safeguarded at all levels. - There is a need to adopt measures to address racial and ethnic stereotypes. One growing problem is xenophobia and hate speech, which can be used to restrict freedom of expression. It reduces the sense of engagement, increases polarization in societies 13