A/71/269 with public institutions in large parts of the population may set in motion a vicious cycle of escalating societal fragmentation, in the course of which government institutions, including the judiciary, may increasingly lose their authority, a process that can ultimately result in a failed State. 37. When public institutions fall apart, societal groups typically fill the vacuum, including mafia organizations, self-appointed vigilante groups and even terrorist organizations, some of which commit violence in the name of religion (see A/HRC/28/66). In such situations, religious or confessional identity — often in combination with ethnic identity — may become a factor in defining militarized groupings. Frequently, people cannot avoid being ascribed to one of the religious groups in confrontation, even if they would wish to keep out of such dangerous dynamics. 38. In a climate of general mistrust caused by the absence of trustworthy public institutions, militant interpretations of religious messages find fertile ground. The failures of public institutions, which in extreme situations may even cease to exist, thus typically breed narrow-minded attitudes, with possible spillover effects on predominant interpretations of religions, which therefore may become more and more militant. This pattern illustrates once more that intolerant interpretations do not directly originate from certain religions in themselves, but usually result from a broad set of political, social, economic and historical root causes and factors, al l of which need to be analysed. 5. Social power imbalances and other variables 39. When undertaking country visits, the Special Rapporteur has become aware that land-grabbing may be an important factor accounting for violations of freedom of religion or belief in some regions. Indigenous peoples are particularly vulnerable in this regard. They often cannot present ownership titles (in the modern understanding) to land that they may have used and cultivated since time immemorial. This has led to bitter and often violent disputes. Freedom of religion or belief issues enter the picture, for example, if land disputes affect the real estate on which religious institutions, such as churches, temples, mosques, pagodas or graveyards, have been erected. In addition, some indigenous peoples may entertain an understanding of “holy sites” that goes beyond any spatially demarcated areas and may include broader parts of the physical environment (see A/HRC/31/18/Add.2). 40. Land-grabbing is merely one example illustrating the relevance of economic and social variables that need to be taken into account for an appropriate understanding of violations of freedom of religion or belief and their root causes. In that context, one also should always pay attention to power imbalances, which typically render parts of the population vulnerable to pressure, exploitation and discrimination. Moreover, gender is a crucial factor that must never be neglected in any analysis of violations of freedom of religion or belief. The generally subordinated role of women in many societies is often also reflected in obstacles to their full enjoyment of freedom of religion or belief. In a few countries, questions of religious minority status are deeply interwoven with the caste society, which creates situations of increased vulnerability, including for converts from lower -caste backgrounds (see A/HRC/10/8/Add.3). 41. Quite a number of societies still grapple with complicated historical legacies, such as the consequences of colonial rule or dictatorship. Colonizing powers, as 12/22 16-13296