A/HRC/31/56 36. In Japan, feudal society stratification during the Tokunaga regime (1603-1867) placed two groups at the bottom of the system, referring to them as the senmin (humble people): the eta (extreme filth) and hinin (non-human). Although the Emancipation Edict was promulgated in 1871 to include the senmin in mainstream society, the Burakumin, as their descendants are now known, continue to be considered as an outcast group, subjected to prejudice and discrimination, including in employment, education and marriage, and physically segregated in Buraku districts. 22 Official figures estimate the total Buraku population to be 1.2 million; however, unofficial figures place the number at almost 3 million.23 Middle East 37. In Yemen, the Muhamasheen (“marginalized ones”), also known as Al Akhdam, constitute a minority group subjected to descent-based discrimination. There are no official data, but unofficial sources estimate their number at between 500,000 and 3.5 million. Their occupational roles include garbage collection, street sweeping and cleaning toilets and drains. They suffer from social stigma and discrimination, which exacerbate their socioeconomic exclusion and poverty.24 Africa 38. According to the former Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, there are three types of descent-based discrimination in Africa, including caste systems based on “occupational specialization of endogamous groups in which membership is based on ascription and between which social distance is regulated by the concept of pollution” and those in which discrimination is based “on real or perceived descent from slaves, leaving many in ‘virtual’ slavery, unable to leave their owner’s employ for fear of reprisals or starvation”.25 39. In Mauritania, the two major cultural and ethnolinguistic groups, the Arab-Berber (commonly referred to as Moors), which includes the Beidane and the Haratines (also known as black moors) and some of the Afro-Mauritanian communities (including the Peuhl, Soninke, Wolof and Bambara), present divisions along ethnic and caste lines. The Moors are further divided into tribes and castes by profession, including blacksmiths, religious leaders and warriors. Relations among the different castes are very hierarchical and result in the exclusion and marginalization of certain castes, such as blacksmiths. 26 The Haratine constitute the largest ethnic group (40 to 60 per cent of the population) but remain economically and politically marginalized. Regarded as the “slave caste”, most of the present-day victims of slavery and slavery-like practices are Haratine.27 40. In Madagascar, there are 18 main tribes, some of which have their own caste systems, such as the Merina and the Bara. Within the Merina hierarchy, there are four main castes: the Andriana, the Hova, the Mainty and the Andevo. The Andevo (descendants of 22 23 24 25 26 27 “Reality of Buraku discrimination in Japan: history, situation, challenges” (International Movement against all Forms of Discrimination and Racism, Buraku Liberation League and Buraku Liberation and Human Rights Research Institute, February 2001). See also E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/16, para. 40. www.bll.gr.jp/eng.html. See A/HRC/30/31, para. 77. See A/HRC/17/40, para. 56. See A/HRC/26/49/Add.1, para. 9. See A/HRC/15/20/Add.2, para. 12. 9