A/HRC/46/30 policies that disproportionately limit freedom of religion of belief for Muslims or that infringe upon Muslims’ other fundamental rights based on their Muslim identity suppress the ability of Muslims to freely be Muslim. Moreover, such exceptional and exclusionary measures may serve to validate anti-Muslim sentiments within the wider population. Some contend that States either lack effective mechanisms for monitoring and reporting discrimination against Muslims and/or that States are the principal perpetrators of discrimination themselves. An increasingly large chorus of voices assert that scant attention to and the amplification of intolerant ideologies towards Muslims are among the root causes of the discrimination, hostility and violence that Muslims experience. The term most used by victims, scholars and rights monitors to describe and explain the animus driving acts of discrimination, hostility and violence against Muslims is “Islamophobia”.7 Some policymakers and monitors prefer the label “anti-Muslim hatred”, fearing that the term “Islamophobia” risks condemning all critiques of Islam and, therefore, could stifle freedom of expression. Moreover, the term is contested because charges of Islamophobia have been inappropriately and dangerously levelled at persons who challenge majoritarian interpretations of Islam, such as human rights activists, including women’s human rights advocates; members of minority Muslim communities within majority Muslim contexts; non-Muslims, including atheists and other religious minorities; and dissidents in authoritarian States. However, others contend that a nebula of anti-Islam discourses use “Islam” as a proxy for “Muslims” and that the institutionalized bias against Muslims is not captured by the concept of “anti-Muslim hatred”. Some use the term “anti-Muslim racism”, which is grounded in cultural racism perspectives, to reflect the theory that religion serves the function of race in differentiating, dehumanizing and subordinating Muslims to the relevant dominant group. However, the racism frame elides religious bigotry that is independent of racialized narratives. For the purposes of the present report, the Special Rapporteur uses the term “Islamophobia” to characterize the complex and diverse set of processes communicated to him that accommodate exclusionary paradigms, which are anchored in the use of essentializations and misperceptions of Islam to stigmatize Muslim individuals and communities. The Special Rapporteur seeks to identify the relationship between Islamophobia and the exercise of freedom of religion or belief by Muslims, and those perceived to be Muslim, while noting that a threat to the freedoms of one community is an obstacle to the enjoyment of human rights more broadly. Additionally, he underscores a human rights approach to countering discrimination and intolerance engendered by Islamophobia in order to better ensure that measures for addressing the phenomenon are grounded in international law and uphold the human rights of all. II. Methodology To inform the present report, the Special Rapporteur held 12 online round-table consultations and 15 online bilateral meetings with stakeholders representing 5 geographical regions. In response to his call for submissions, he received and reviewed 78 submissions from civil society, 3 from national human rights and equality bodies, 26 from States and 3 from multilateral organizations. The Special Rapporteur extends his deepest gratitude to all who provided their time and insight. It would often be incorrect to address discrimination, hostility and violence that emanate from Islamophobia as based on the single protected ground of religion alone; Islamophobia can be fuelled by various overlapping prejudices – ethnic, racial, xenophobic, economic, gendered and religious, subjecting targets to discrimination based on multiple or concurring grounds. 8 Therefore, the Special Rapporteur adopts an intersectional lens and tools to promote and protect freedom of religion or belief in the context of Islamophobia. The Special Rapporteur notes that Muslim individuals and communities experience anti-Muslim bias differently depending on the context. He has consistently raised awareness 7 8 http://bridge.georgetown.edu/islamophobia-the-right-word-for-a-real-problem/. www.jstor.org/stable/1229039?seq=1, p. 140. 3