E/CN.4/1999/58 page 28 counter to Islam and that women are inferior, according to religion and the prophecies. In Ghana, in accordance with traditions claiming to be based on religion, women are used as slaves, including sex slaves. Lastly, in addition to assassinations, one of the most extreme manifestations and consequences of obscurantism and barbarism against women in the name of religion is rape (in various forms, such as gang rape, forced marriage, etc.) and, in the case of the communications to which this report refers, of nuns, girls and women. 112. These most visible and shocking examples of manipulations and interpretations specifically affecting women must not, however, divert attention from more subtle, less spectacular forms of intolerance and discrimination which are, nevertheless, just as effective in their aim of enslaving women; a case in point is the refusal to adopt affirmative action on behalf of women, especially in the context of parliamentary elections. We should also recall that these discriminatory policies and practices in some cases exclude any possibility of appeal and dialogue, even on the part of men, as is illustrated by a male writer's alleged arrest because in his writings he advocated sexual equality. Generally speaking, it is important to stress that these violations may be committed not only by extremist groups and communities, but more often than not by society (as shown by the alleged pressure exerted on a Muslim woman who had converted to another religion) and official institutions (c.f. communications on the attitude of parliaments to women and their position in public and private life, etc.). 113. Replies were received from the following States after finalization of the report submitted to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fourth session (E/CN.4/1998/6): Austria, Brunei Darussalam, Egypt, Gambia, India and Kuwait (see A/53/279). 114. The Special Rapporteur has still not received replies from the following 27 States to communications dispatched in connection with the report to the Commission at its fifty-fourth session: Afghanistan, Albania, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Comoros, Gabon, Georgia, Iran, Latvia, Mauritania, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Portugal, Qatar, Russian Federation, Somalia, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Yemen and Yugoslavia. The Special Rapporteur invites States that have not yet responded to allegations to express their views and comments, and reminds them of the virtue of dialogue. Indeed, he is beginning to wonder whether, by their silence, certain States do not wish to confirm the substance of the allegations made. V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 115. Fifty years after the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 18 of which is the cornerstone of freedom of religion and belief, and despite the adoption of successive international human rights instruments guaranteeing the right to freedom of religion and belief (art. 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief), one cannot help noticing the persistence of manifestations of intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief in countries at different stages of development and with