A/HRC/22/49 49. Many minorities have poor access to education, and frequently education is not in their mother tongue. Literacy levels for some minorities are often low compared to the average. The parents of minority children may be unable to assist their children or engage fully with the education process if they are not proficient in the official language. Where mother-tongue languages are orally transmitted or taught informally in the home, children may not obtain adequate language education allowing them to be fully literate in either their mother tongue or the national language, with consequences for cultural and language transmission and reproduction. Some minorities have reported that entrance examinations for higher education are only in the national language, which places them at a disadvantage and results in fewer minorities progressing to higher education. 50. States can decide on approaches to ensure the enjoyment of language-related rights in practice, based on factors such as demand and the number and location of minority students. Where student numbers are higher it may be appropriate to provide formal classes in minority languages, while in other cases more informal approaches may be appropriate, including additional classes and out-of-school teaching options. Government motivation for restricting the teaching of minority languages and their use as a language of instruction may be based on such factors as a policy of promoting the use of one national language and national unity. Some consider it advantageous for the social and economic mobility of minorities to ensure that they are fully proficient in the national language and therefore to limit minority language use in education, however this is a violation of minority rights. 51. UNICEF highlights evidence that bilingual education from the earliest years of schooling ensures that minority children become proficient in their mother tongue and the dominant language from an early age. Teaching children for a recommended six to eight years in their mother tongue and gradually introducing national languages has advantages, including the following: children learn better, are more confident and are well equipped to transfer their literacy and numeracy skills to additional languages; children experience less frustration and failure and fewer drop out of school; and by including families and drawing on local cultural heritage, mother tongue–based education contributes to communities’ social and cultural well-being and fosters inclusiveness within wider society. However, many countries have not adopted bilingual learning approaches. 52. In Viet Nam, visited by the previous mandate holder in July 2010 (see A/HRC/16/45/Add.2), UNICEF has been supporting the Ministry of Education and Training to address disparities in education outcomes between the majority and ethnic minorities. The mother tongue–based bilingual education programme has been implemented since 2008 in three provinces with three different ethnic minorities—Mong, Jrai and Khmer—and shows very positive results.22 53. Mother tongue–based bilingual education requires resources and technical expertise for its practical delivery. This includes ensuring the recruitment and training of minority teachers and those proficient in minority languages, provision of minority language textbooks and teaching materials, and development of bilingual curricula. The undertaking of classroom language mapping provides necessary information at the local level to identify requirements and possibilities for bilingual language approaches. Even in countries in which minority language education is enshrined in law and policy, challenges in terms of practical implementation, including a lack of appropriate teaching materials, are often cited as a problem by minorities. 22 14 See UNICEF, ―Action research on mother tongue–based bilingual education: improving the equity and quality of education for ethnic minority children in Viet Nam‖ (2012). Available from www.unicef.org/vietnam/resources_19823.html