A/68/296 omitting so-called “dark periods” to a special insistence on them, creating what may be termed a “victim culture” that may be used to excuse non-performance in diverse areas. Manipulations may also be used to avoid addressing past complicities and local oppressions. 33. A specific challenge confronting many post-colonial States was the absence of written histories of their own. In many societies, local histories were oral and shaped outside contemporary academic methodology. Moreover, the pre-eminence accorded to the written word over the oral tradition as “more authentic” undermined the value and traditions of oral history. Consequently, history continued to be taught from the perspective of the colonizers. In many cases, history textbooks had to be developed from scratch, without the benefit of previous research. Consequently, controversial issues and, therefore, entire periods of history were sometimes overlooked. IV. Researching and writing history and respect for academic freedoms 34. History is subject to government control when authorities are not keen on allowing an independent, critical academic discipline. 35. As an academic discipline, history is based on the study of historical sources, analysis of facts and the synthesis of data into a narrative. The resulting narratives depend on various factors, including the historian’s ability and level of competence, but also her or his way of thinking and value system, the general climate of work and political and social circumstances. Historians need to be aware of their positions and the resulting impact on their narrative. Debate among historians, following the deontology of the profession, obliges them to take into account various and conflicting data and to analyse events in the widest possible context. 36. The State may impose a single, politically dictated historical narrative through restrictions affecting the entire process of researching and writing history, including those on freedom of opinion, of speech and of academic freedoms, in particular the freedom to choose a specific research subject, to have access to archives and specific publications, to work with historians from other countries or groups and to publicize syntheses that challenge a prescribed pattern. State control over historical narratives varies. 37. The Special Rapporteur recalls that several human rights provisions protect academic freedoms. In particular, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights considers that the right to education can be enjoyed only if accompanied by the academic freedom of staff and students, in particular in higher education, which is especially vulnerable to political and other pressures. Members of the academic community, individually or collectively, must be free to pursue, develop and transmit knowledge and ideas, through research, teaching, study, discussion, documentation, production, creation or writing. Academic freedom includes the liberty of individuals to express opinions freely about the institution or system in which they work, to fulfil their functions without discrimination or fear of repression by the State or any other actor, to participate in professional and representative academic bodies and to enjoy their human rights. The enjoyment of academic freedom carries with it obligations, such as the duty to respect the 13-42291 11/27