A/HRC/55/44 Scientific Researchers contains the recommendation, in paragraph 7, that States use scientific and technological knowledge in decision-making and policies for international relations. 52. “Alignment” or “use” does not mean the automatic adoption of advice from scientists or some scientists. It refers to a process whereby science, taking into consideration scientific diversity, informs the law but leaves space for other considerations and allows for decisions that balance different rights and people’s aspirations. Importantly, considering that scientific diversity also refers to the diversity of scientific disciplines, such sciences as, for example, sociology, psychology and history must also be used and interact with natural sciences to provide evidence and inform political decisions, including by opening up and untangling issues of ethical considerations in more depth 65 and deconstructing “techno-solutionism”. The recent past has shown that difficult ways forward need to be based on science, in all its diversity but must also inform people of their basis and be open to their questioning and critical enquiry. In that respect, education in science is of paramount importance. 53. Scientific experts are often called upon to contribute to public discussions as part of their social responsibility. At times, they are pushed to the front of what should be political decisions. Within the context of a shrinking civic space, the search for scientific consensus to legitimize political decisions and convince the general public of their suitability, even done with the best intentions, diminishes the space for further understanding of all parameters and for real discussion. The more that science is presented as prescribing clear-cut ways forward in very challenging matters that go beyond scientific considerations, the more that scientists are asked to oversimplify science and science is presented as dogma, a process that shuts down dialogue and disagreement. Tensions then occur and the distrust and resentment are erroneously pointed towards scientific experts. Their expertise is doubted and some have been threatened, detained, undermined or ridiculed. Meanwhile, unscientific suggestions and populist, oversimplified explanations and uncritical suggestions become dominant in the public sphere, often through social media. 54. The right to participate in science per se should not hinder the right to the best applications of science. The unlimited participation of non-experts can lead to erroneous conclusions and claims. The reality is that we do not all have equal epistemic capacity. The difference between certified expertise and experiential expertise cannot be neglected. In applying a system of human rights in striving towards equality, States must also take measures to restrict epistemic applications that are not of high quality and high scientific calibre. Although the right to expression is an important consideration, the voices of certified scientists cannot be allowed to be drowned out by the voices of amateur scientists, as that creates confusion and a false balance in the mind of the public. 55. Science-policy interfaces are important ways to ensure participation in decision-making, by engaging all relevant stakeholders, particularly scientific researchers from all relevant disciplines, securing opportunities for the informed participation of the public and ensuring that, where science is unable to offer sufficient evidence, policies are developed in accordance with the precautionary principle.66 56. Such science-policy interfaces must fulfil the elements suggested in the above-mentioned guidelines to ensure the appropriate participation of scientific stakeholders in the decision-making of public authorities and must also go beyond. Multiple interfaces must exist in the State to ensure a variety of voices and to diminish the fear of a reliance on dominant narratives and all such interfaces should have real, not nominal, power. As highlighted by several contributors, science policy interfaces may include public institutions especially designed for such purposes but not be limited to those, including universities, research institutes, ethics committees, national academies of science in addition to such institutions as museums and libraries. As mentioned in the contribution from Spain, there is an emerging albeit still fragile ecosystem of scientific and technical advice that is rich and diverse, in which numerous interconnected actors participate. 67 In addition, several key conditions need to be met, including respect for scientific and academic freedom and for 65 66 67 GE.24-01813 See contribution from Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights Association. A/HRC/48/61, para. 50. See contribution from Spain (in Spanish). 13