A/54/386 and would recommend measures to combat and prevent them. 108. The Special Rapporteur is also encouraging research on ways in which intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief impact racial discrimination. In this connection, the recommendation of the representative of the Holy See, made during the preparatory process to the Conference against Racism, is very sound: “There is a need to go deeper than historical, cultural, political or social contexts and to identify and understand the spiritual and moral dimensions which underlay the universal human condition and in particular those aspects of it leading to abuses of racial discrimination.” 109. The Special Rapporteur of course wishes the necessary resources to be made available to him for the preparation of these studies. 110. As regards defamation of religions, the Commission on Human Rights adopted resolution 1999/82 entitled “Defamation of religions” (see above, paras. 104 and 107), in which it expresses deep concern at negative stereotyping of religions, also expresses deep concern that Islam is frequently and wrongly associated with human rights violations and with terrorism, expresses its concern at the role of the media and calls upon the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance to take into account the provisions of the present resolution when reporting to the Commission on Human Rights. 111. The Special Rapporteur shares the Commission’s concern about any threat to religions through defamation. As the Commission very rightly pointed out, all religions are or may be affected by this violation. For this reason, as shown in the Special Rapporteur’s mission reports [Pakistan (E/CN.4/1996/95/Add.1) and Sudan (A/51/542/Add.2)] and in the information obtained from States regarding their legislation concerning freedom of religion and belief (para. 101 above), most States have incorporated provisions to punish defamation (for example, blasphemy) in their legal, constitutional, legislative and penal systems, on the understanding that there must be a precise definition of this offence, a specific legal system and an appropriate system of proof. 112. This concern was also expressed in intergovernmental regional organizations. For example, in its recommendation 1996 (1999) entitled “Religion and democracy”, the Council of Europe stated: “Many conflicts also arise from mutual ignorance, the resulting stereotypes and, ultimately, rejection. In a democratic system, politicians have a duty to prevent a whole religion from being associated with actions carried out for instance by fanatical religious minorities.” Similarly, OSCE, at its Supplementary Human Dimension Meeting: Freedom of Religion (Vienna, 22 March 1999) identified in its annotated agenda, in the part entitled “Religious pluralism and limitations on freedom of religion”: “Problems encountered by new and minority religions, for example actions that create harmful stereotypes and promote prejudice against religious minorities”. 113. The Special Rapporteur has also found that religious, particularly Muslim, minorities were the butt of prejudice and stereotyping. This finding therefore echoes paragraph 2 of resolution 1999/82. In this connection, and in accordance with paragraph 3 of that resolution, the Special Rapporteur has described in his mission reports on A u s t r a l i a ( E / CN. 4/ 1 9 9 8 / 6 / A d d . 1 ) , G e r m a n y (E/CN.4/1998/6/Add.2) and the United States (E/CN.4/1999/58/Add.1) the association of Islam with religious extremism and terrorism found in the media and particularly in the popular press. Recommendations have been made on this subject (see mission reports and para. 102 above). 114. The Special Rapporteur naturally acknowledges the danger represented by the extremism of groups claiming allegiance to Islam. However, it is important to distinguish between such extremists using Islam for political purposes, who are in fact in the minority, and the majority of Muslims practising Islam in accordance with the principles of tolerance and non-discrimination. 115. The Special Rapporteur has also found that nonMuslim religious minorities were victims of defamation, as shown in his reports on missions to Pakistan and to the United States. 116. The Special Rapporteur believes that it is important to indicate that defamation and stereotyping may stem from intolerance and/or inter-religious and also intra-religious ignorance but that they usually exist in the context of an adversarial relationship between majority and minorities. 117. Lastly, it should be emphasized that there are growing problems between traditional majority religions and sects/new religious movements but also between believers and non-believers. 118. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to stress another concern relating to efforts to combat defamation: these should not be used to censure all inter-religious and intrareligious criticism or even as a means of repression against minorities in the area of religion and belief. For example, the legislation on blasphemy in Pakistan is used, principally by extremists, in order to repress the Ahmadi 17