the compounded vulnerabilities and harms that some individuals may experience. For example, elderly persons belonging to national minorities may be particularly affected by inequalities in health care. Minority women and girls are particularly vulnerable to social and economic exclusion due to entrenched gender bias and discrimination, including distinct forms of discrimination resulting from the intersection of gender with a woman’s ethnicity, language or identification as a national minority.52 Violence against women and girls both affects their ability to enjoy their social and economic rights53 and may also be exacerbated when they face social and economic exclusion. International law prohibits discrimination based on sex54 and enshrines the equal rights of women and men in their enjoyment of all human rights.55 OSCE participating States have made commitments to promote gender equality,56 and have recognized the importance of women’s economic empowerment and participation and the additional barriers women and girls may face beyond those based on gender. In response, they have called for positive action measures to address women’s exclusion.57 OSCE participating States have also committed to pay attention to the needs and concerns of youth58 and have acknowledged their valuable contribution to 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 OHCHR, FMI Recommendations, third session, paragraphs 5 and 13; OHCHR, Report of the Working Group on the Issue of Discrimination against Women in Law and in Practice, paragraphs 24–25 (Geneva 2014); and CESCR, General Comment No. 16, paragraph 5. CESCR, General Comment No. 16: The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of All Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (article 3 of the Covenant), paragraph 27 (2005) (CESCR, General Comment No. 16: The Equal Right of Men and Women). UDHR, article 2; ECHR, articles 1 and 14; ICESCR, article 2(2); and ICCPR, articles 2(1) and 26. ICESCR article 3; CEDAW, articles 10–14; United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), Beijing Declaration, paragraph 16 (2015); CoE, Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention), article 4 (Istanbul 2011); Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, 2016/C, 202/01 (OJ C 202, 7.6.2016, p.1), article 2; EU, Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, article 23 (2012); and UN Charter, article 1 (3) (1945). OSCE, OSCE Action Plan for the Promotion of Gender Equality (Sofia 2004); Madrid 1983, “Questions Relating to Security in Europe, Principles”; Vienna 1989, “Questions Relating to Security in Europe, Principles”; CSCE, Document of the Moscow Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE (Moscow 1991), paragraph 40; and Istanbul 1999, paragraphs 23–24. Moscow 1991, paragraph 40.6; OSCE, Ministerial Council Decision No. 10/11 on “promoting equal opportunity for women in the economic sphere” (Vilnius 2011); Maastricht 2003, Annex to Ministerial Council Decision No. 3/03, “Action Plan on Improving the Situation of Roma and Sinti within the OSCE Area, II. General context: for Roma, with Roma”, paragraph 6; OSCE, Ministerial Council Decision No. 6/08 on “Enhancing OSCE Efforts to Implement the Action Plan on Improving the Situation of Roma and Sinti within the OSCE Area”, paragraph 5 (Helsinki 2008); and OSCE, Ministerial Council Decision 4/13 on “Enhancing OSCE Efforts to Implement the Action Plan on Improving the Situation of Roma and Sinti within the OSCE Area, with a Particular Focus on Roma and Sinti Women, Youth and Children”, paragraph 4 (Kyiv 2013). There is no universally agreed definition of “youth”, but the UN defines youth as those between 15 and 24 years of age; some OSCE documents refer to youth as the population under 30 years of age. Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National Minorities in Social and Economic Life 27