A/HRC/30/41 Female genital mutilation has been documented mainly in Africa, but also in some countries in the Middle East, Asia, and Central and South America. As recognized by WHO, there are no benefits to female genital mutilation; in fact, the procedure can have many negative consequences for women, including infection, complications in childbirth, pain, infertility and cysts, as well as their overall disempowerment within society. There is very little information about the prevalence and drivers of female genital mutilation among indigenous communities, but it is known to take place in some but not all indigenous communities. 56. Similarly, little disaggregated information is available about the specific dynamics of child marriage in indigenous communities, but it is known to take place in some communities. Much of the literature on child marriage demonstrates a strong link with poverty, therefore, the broader human rights violations of indigenous women and girls are likely to be strong causal factors for child marriage. Child marriage is not only a form of violence, but also a violation of the child’s rights to education and family life. Child marriage can also lead to violations of the rights to life and health, as young girls often experience complications with pregnancy and childbirth, which can result in death. In addition, child marriage creates vulnerability to marital rape. 23 Domestic violence 57. Information on domestic violence is limited due to underreporting and lack of investment in data collection. Nonetheless, available data suggests that indigenous women are significantly more likely to be victims of domestic violence than non-indigenous women. 58. Domestic violence can have grave consequences for victims, including mental health problems, substance abuse, severe health issues and difficulties in providing care to children. Those consequences may be felt more acutely by indigenous women owing to lack of access to support services and justice, as well as their specific cultural and economic circumstances. 59. Domestic violence must be considered within the context of the broader human rights abuses of indigenous communities. A number of potential root causes have been identified, many of which are linked to human rights issues specific to indigenous peoples and historical violations of their rights, including a violent family environment; abusive State policies at a young age; financial problems and poverty; unemployment; lack of education; poor physical and mental health; racism-induced stress; denial of rights to selfdetermination, land and culture, among others, leading to loss of identity and self-esteem; and a breakdown of community kinship systems and Aboriginal law. While nothing can negate domestic violence, which is a serious crime, strategies for its reduction and elimination must take into account both its causes and consequences through a holistic and human rights-based lens. Interventions such as support and recovery services must also be sensitive to the specific needs of indigenous women and girls. Trafficking 60. Compelled by economic need, armed conflict and denial of self-determination and land rights in the context of major economic development projects, many indigenous peoples migrate from their home communities in rural areas to urban centres. Indigenous women and girls who leave their communities are highly vulnerable to trafficking, which 23 16 See Human Rights Watch, section on child marriage, available at www.hrw.org/topic/womensrights/child-marriage.