Anti-discrimination instruments should be regularly monitored and assessed for effectiveness. They also need to be co-ordinated – among each other as well as with other instruments – to be consistent and effective. No anti-discrimination policy can be effectively implemented if it is not complemented by adequate legal remedies in case of discrimination. Criminal, administrative and civil sanctions need to be effective, proportional and sufficiently severe to be dissuasive. In addition to compensation, non-monetary forms of reparation, such as publishing all or part of a court decision or obliging the discriminator to do some relevant social work, may also be important in rendering justice in cases of discrimination. Discrimination may take place not only on the basis of one aspect of an individual’s identity, but on several grounds, as is the case for multiple or intersectional discrimination. For example, women of minority backgrounds may be more vulnerable to discrimination. Policies should be designed to ensure that such discrimination also is covered by legislation and receives adequate attention. 31. Policies that include special measures to combat the effects of past or systematic discrimination of a particular group should not be considered discriminatory. The possibility to adopt such measures should be foreseen in law. It might be necessary to adopt special measures to combat the effects of past or systematic discrimination of particular groups and to ensure full and effective equality for members of minorities who are in a disadvantaged position.70 According to international human rights standards, such measures should only remain in force until the inequality has been redressed.71 When adopted in conformity with the proportionality principle, such measures shall not be considered discriminatory. The possibility and, when required, the necessity to adopt such measures should be explicitly laid down in law, including, where appropriate, in the constitution. This not only ensures consistency to the provision, but also guides judges in interpreting equality provisions in line with generally recognized international non-discrimination standards. 70 71 Also see Guideline 3. ICERD, article 1.4, and General Recommendation no. 32; CCPR General Comment no. 18: Nondiscrimination: 10 November 1989 and UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General comment no. 20. Guidelines on Integration of Diverse Societies 39