A/HRC/32/50 subjugating groups seen as lesser due to their geographic origin and cultural identity. 37 In addition, historical antagonism exacerbated by constructed identities engineered to institutionalize differences has led to the worst forms of xenophobic violence in parts of the continent, as was the case in Rwanda.38 46. Moreover, as a result of the global war on terror and restrictive immigration policies, parts of the region — especially transit countries — have been under pressure from outside to control immigration, which has contributed to further stigmatization of migrants and to increased manifestations of xenophobia39 and racism. It has been noted that in North Africa, through which sub-Saharan Africans transit en route to Europe, racism has fuelled xenophobic attitudes. This cross-sectional manifestation of racism and xenophobia against people of African origin has been conceptualized as Afrophobia,40 but also as racial prejudice41 and as racism.42 (b) The Americas 47. The manifestations of xenophobia in the Americas have often been tied to official State practices in repressing political contestation. Some government policies and laws have been identified as contributing to spreading xenophobic attitudes and ideas, and in so doing, to institutionalizing discrimination against outsiders.43 In some places, national and often monocultural conceptions of the identity and belonging of dominant groups have been promoted with a view to excluding those blamed for posing economic, moral, health or security threats. State-sponsored xenophobic practices may include constructing restrictive categories of belonging,44 racial profiling by civil servants and security forces and the harassment of “deviant” or “impossible” subjects,45 and passing laws to prevent or terminate access to social and health-care benefits to migrants,46 as well as denying them protection of their basic rights and establishing restrictive immigration policies. 47 48. As elsewhere, xenophobia in the Americas intersects with other forms of discrimination based, inter alia, on race, ethnicity, indigenous status, gender or religion. Although often officially disguised under the rhetoric of hybrid identities and 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 14 Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Do ‘Africans’ exist? Genealogies and paradoxes of African identities and the discourses of nativism and xenophobia”, pp. 281-295. See E/CN.4/1994/7/Add.1. Nizar Messari and Johannes van der Klaauw, “Counter-terrorism measures and refugee protection in North Africa”, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 29, No. 4 (2010), p. 85. David Mario Matsinhe, Third World Quarterly, vol. 32, No. 2 (2011), pp. 295-313. Cindy Warner and Gillian Finchilescu, “Living with prejudice: xenophobia and race”, Agenda, No. 55 (2003). Kenneth Tafira, “Is xenophobia racism?” Anthropology Southern Africa, vol. 34, No. 3&4 (2011), pp. 114-121. David C. Baluarte, “Inter-American justice comes to the Dominican Republic: an island shakes as human rights and sovereignty clash”, Human Rights Brief, vol. 13, issue 2 (2006); and Barbara Sutton, “Contesting racism: democratic citizenship, human rights, and antiracist politics in Argentina”, Latin American Perspectives, vol. 35, No. 6 (2008), pp. 106-121. Barbara Sutton, “Contesting racism: democratic citizenship, human rights, and antiracist politics in Argentina”, pp. 106-121. Ibid. Sharon M. Keigher, “America’s most cruel xenophobia”, Health and Social Work, vol. 22, No. 3 (1997), p. 232. David C. Baluarte, “Inter-American justice comes to the Dominican Republic: an island shakes as human rights and sovereignty clash”; and Laurel Fletcher and Timothy Miller, “New perspectives on old patterns: forced migration of Haitians in the Dominican Republic”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 30, No. 4 (2004), pp. 659-679.