social media has granted minorities to voice their realities. Simultaneously, there is a need to find mechanisms through which the hate targeted at minorities, which may cause psycho-social harm and may even lead to physical intimidation and acts, is effectively tackled. Item 2: Causes, scale and impact of hate speech targeting minorities in social media The Chair of the Forum introduced this item mentioning that worldwide on social media, minorities are the target of most of the incitement to discrimination, hostility and violence, and other forms of intolerance and racist expressions that constitute hate speech. Blaming and scapegoating of minorities is at times exploited for political reasons, or it is present owing to longstanding and entrenched stigmatization and marginalization. Hate speech is thus often a manifestation of deep-rooted bias, racism, intolerance and discrimination. Hateful messages may fall on particularly fertile ground where there are wider social, economic or political problems or divisions in society, and they can be an early warning sign of possible aggravation in the form of incitement to violence against minorities and other marginalized groups. Therefore, the advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred may become the principal tools and early warning signs of organized and systematic violence, which may even contribute to conflicts and instability, as well as to enabling and perpetrating atrocity crimes against minorities. Participants were invited to describe the extent to which hate speech on social media targets minorities in particular, and the causes for the apparent overwhelming targeting of national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. They were also expected to consider how misinformation and disinformation can serve to create conditions conducive to the spread of racism, intolerance and discrimination. Participants were invited to offer recommendations on how to address the root causes and prevent the possible escalations of the scourge of hate speech on social media, and on how to better identify and acknowledge the disproportionate extent it affects minorities. Recommendations were also expected as to what initiatives could be put forward in order to focus on efforts to protect the main victims of hate speech, namely minorities. Participants were also called to discuss the ways to address the consequences of hate speech, bearing in mind a gender perspective, as minority women and girls face multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, which sometimes makes them more vulnerable to hate speech and its consequences. This is particularly true in situations of conflict, where minority women are at high risk of violence and abuse. Presentations on the topic under discussion were made by the following panellists: Dr. Iulius Rostas, Visiting Professor at the National School of Political Science and Administration in Bucharest and Central European University; Ms. Beena J Pallical, General Secretary of the Economic and Educational rights wing within the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) and Ms. Lecia Brooks, Chief of Staff, Southern Poverty Law Centre. 6