A/HRC/4/9/Add.3 page 15 48. An estimated 89 different languages, belonging to several different language groups, are spoken throughout Ethiopia. Language is however a highly politicized issue and historical dominance of Amharic under successive Amhara-led Governments saw decline in other languages with resulting tensions. The current language policy was established in the Constitution under articles 5 and 39. The federal system has been beneficial in terms of re-establishing minority languages that are fully recognized and promoted under the Constitution as working languages within schools and the various regional state administrations. 49. Amharic remains the official working language of choice in some states, including Amhara, the SNNP and Afar. Under previous Governments, Amharic was the language of primary school education nationwide and thus children from other ethnic groups had little possibility to learn their native language within the formal school system. Under article 5, paragraph 1 of the Constitution, all languages are given equal recognition by the State, and Amharic is recognized as the official working language of the federal Government. However each member state of the Federation may determine its own working language. 50. The situation in terms of the languages of smaller minority groups within a state is less certain and a number of minority languages are considered extinct.10 Limited resources mean that not all languages can be represented in the school system, which in many regions is burdened by severe resource and access problems.11 Under-resourced states may be unable to devote resources to minority languages in states with a dominant ethnic group. At the wareda or zone level, local education solutions should be encouraged, although these may require Government support. Guidelines may be required to ensure that the gap between constitutional recognition and practical realization of language rights does not result in conflict between groups, or arbitrary decisions that elevate certain languages over others. 51. Those speaking only their mother tongue may be disadvantaged beyond the regional level, and thus in all regions there is education in both Amharic and English, which are also commonly the languages of instruction in secondary and higher education. The independent expert strongly supports the opinion that a common language, learned by all in Ethiopia, is an effective mechanism contributing to national unity and equal opportunity. A unifying national language (a lingua franca) means that no groups should be disadvantaged nationally, or face restrictions on their geographical or socio-economic mobility due to issues of language proficiency. However, for minority groups in rural and disadvantaged regions, lacking basic access to education, language and literacy remains a serious barrier to full realization of their rights. A human rights advocate in Addis Ababa stated that: “People want to study English or Amharic … they don’t want to commit suicide by only knowing their own language.” 10 Ethnologue: Languages of the world (2005) www.ethnologue.com/web.asp states that there are 89 languages listed for Ethiopia of which 84 are living and 5 (Gafat, Geez, Mesmes, Rer Bare and Weyto) are extinct. 11 According to the UNDP Human Development Index, net primary school enrolment in 2004 in Ethiopia was 46 per cent. The Government contests this and estimates that this figure was more than 70 per cent in 2004.