A/HRC/18/45 developed countries constituted major reasons for the feeling of marginalization of people of African and Caribbean ancestry, who are not aware of their heritage, given that it was not reflected in school curricula. 81. Following Ms. Shepherd’s presentation, participants took the floor to stress the crucial importance of teaching the history of people of African descent as well as the need for a large-scale review of history books to incorporate the contributions that Africans and people of African descent had made to all sectors of society. 82. An observer stressed the need to develop African-centred models in justice, education and legislative systems to address past wrongs, and referred to the establishment of indigenous courts in Canada as models for dispute resolution systems that are inclusive, respectful and designed by indigenous peoples. 83. Marcelo Paixao from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro presented a study related to item 8 (c) regarding the lack of knowledge of the culture, history and traditions of people of African descent, by themselves and others. The study highlighted results from national censuses conducted in several Latin American countries. Mr. Paixao pointed out that, in the 2000 census, nine countries had included a question on ethnicity or race, by which respondents were asked if they identified themselves as being of African descent through one of four main categories: ancestry; culture (including ethnic group, population group or nationality); phenotypic traits (skin colour, race); or feeling of belonging (without mentioning ethnic group or race). 84. Mr. Paixao pointed out that the formulation of questions on ethnicity and race in national censuses, household surveys and other data collection may influence the respective replies, reliability of collected data and consequently the visibility of people of African descent. In this regard, he also noted that it was important to know whether questions devised to determine ethnic and racial variables addressed the population as a whole or just a specific group. 85. Mr. Paixao emphasized that the collection of data, the development of public policies, the implementation of affirmative action and self-identification were all interrelated. He noted that almost all Latin American countries would have a question on people of African descent in their next national census. 86. Mr. Paixao stated that statistical data were essential for the creation of the nationState. Such data were closely linked to the recognition of groups, the identification of challenges they faced, and public policies. In this regard, he encouraged all States to introduce racial/ethnical variables in national censuses and other data-collection initiatives as this was a prerequisite to improve conditions for these population groups. 87. Mr. Sicilianos commented that data on ethnic characteristics was sensitive information. He emphasized that it was essential that these kinds of questions were asked in an anonymous manner. He also noted that data should be disaggregated by sex, age or on other grounds, thus allowing decision makers to identify multiple forms of discrimination. 88. A representative of an international organization pointed out that it was important to design and implement rights-based public policies. 89. Mr. Paixao stated that it was essential to ensure funds for statistical studies and analysis to be carried out. He noted that this kind of data consolidated democracies and countered the invisibility of groups and the perpetuation of their problems. In this vein, he pointed out that the mortality rate for people of African descents in Brazil was higher, including maternal mortality. 90. Mr. Paixao highlighted the key role of the United Nations in ensuring data collection and analysis. Data were needed to monitor progress, produce new social consensus and 14