A/HRC/16/45 A. Effective participation in political life and decision-making 48. The effective and meaningful participation of minorities in the political arena can be a pivotal element in avoiding violent conflict. While members of minorities have the right to participate in decision-making processes, particularly those that affect them, minorities are greatly underrepresented in the political processes and governing institutions of most countries for a variety of reasons. They may be intentionally restricted from participation or inadvertently disadvantaged by laws or policies, or there may be a lack of political will to dismantle structural barriers to the full and equal participation of minorities. 49. States have significant leeway to decide, in consultation with minority communities, the modalities by which political participation can be achieved. Those measures may include the devolution of certain powers by means of a federal or autonomy arrangement; electoral systems based on proportional representation; a system of reserved seats for minorities in parliament; or the facilitated participation in the electoral process of political parties representing the interests of minorities. Most importantly, the modality for political inclusion must afford minorities genuine influence. Tokenism or State interference in the process of identifying political representatives, for example, may lead to deeper frustrations. Further, full respect for freedoms of expression and assembly is critical. 50. The most appropriate system will depend on the specificities of the situation, including how populous the communities are, whether they are geographically dispersed or concentrated, the aspirations of the minority groups and how well integrated they are into the broader society. The flexibility of the minority rights framework makes it well suited to the compromises necessary in processes of negotiating solutions, diffusing tensions and avoiding violent conflicts. In November 2009, the second session of the Forum on Minority Issues focused on the issue of minorities and effective political participation and produced a set of practical recommendations for States and other actors (A/HRC/13/25, para. 5). 51. Respecting the right of minorities to political participation at times of peace contributes to harmonious societies and opens non-violent avenues for the grievances of minorities to be addressed. When violent conflict does occur in diverse societies, applying a minority rights-based approach to consultations regarding peace agreements will require that all communities affected by the conflict, including those that are not active parties to it, be able to participate in the settlement process. That approach should counteract a tendency common in many conflict situations, whereby Governments, and the international community, focus predominately on addressing the demands of communities that are linked to armed movements, which may result in peace agreements that guarantee rights for some communities at the expense of others. B. Protection of cultural identity 52. At the core of minority rights are the protection and preservation of culturally distinctive identities within societies. The denigration or suppression of the defining identity of a person or group can be a powerful factor in generating conflict. Repressive measures to control or restrict religious or traditional practices or force assimilation can galvanize opposition and create a common platform around which targeted communities can rally. Language, in particular, is a potent vehicle of culture. The imposition on minority communities of a majority language, either through teaching in public schools or formal prohibitions on the use of minority languages, has been a spark that has ignited many violent clashes in every region. 53. The 1992 Declaration on Minorities, in article 4, paragraphs2 and 3, establishes positive obligations requiring that States take measures to create favourable conditions to 13