A/74/255 76. Privatization and overreliance on private sponsorship of c ultural events may also affect cultural activities in public spaces, such as festivals. The attendant risks include censorship by private sponsors, when freedom of artistic expression is no longer guaranteed by public authorities, and decreasing diversity. 77. In public-private partnerships, governments should retain authority in terms of governance. They continue to have human rights obligations. Public -private partnerships are based on long-term and inclusive contracts, which should include the protection of human rights from abuses by private actors. According to UN -Habitat, almost all countries around the world have experienced some form of public -private partnership investment since the 1990s. These can be important instruments to save costs, and to enhance timely delivery and public management, but there are also risks of loss of accountability or reduced control of public assets that should be addressed. 78. Public-private partnerships can be effective in providing safe and clean public spaces. While this focus has led to exclusion in some contexts, in others it has resulted in the provision of relatively open and accessible spaces that can foster inclusion. For instance, Gandhi Square in Johannesburg, South Africa, while leased to a private company and privately managed, is in some ways an intensely public space. This openness is important for grounding cultural rights in diverse places. 77 Denying any possibility of private sector involvement in public spaces can be equally dangerous, especially in cities where local governments are overworked, underresourced and/or suffering from corruption. 79. In certain circumstances, private spaces may allow some forms of expression that are otherwise unavailable in public spaces. For instance, in Karachi and Lahore, Pakistan, the opening of private creative spaces is seen as a very positive development and a continuation of the tradition of mela, or village fairs, used as public entertainment spaces. In 2019, 10 such privately owned spaces existed in Karachi, providing for open dialogue on culture, human rights and gender balance, and encouraging emerging artists. 78 States must consider how they can recognize and promote these creative spaces as part of the cultural landscape, including through funding, while ensuring that freedom of expression and the principle of non-discrimination continue to be respected in these spaces. In any case, the maintenance or development of adequate fully public spaces remains essential from a human rights perspective. Tourism and heritage 80. Tourism can also have an impact on access to and enjoyment of public spaces. While the development of tourism as an economic asset can have very positive impacts on restoration and preservation of heritage, it should be strategically conceived and managed in order not to create exclusion. Urban centres are increasingly subjected to branding strategies aimed at attracting tourists, which can increase gentrification processes and exclude those who do not fit the chosen branding image. 79 There is also a risk of watering down cultural assets for tourist consumption and a “theatricalization” of public spaces. 80 81. The inscription of a site on a national or international heritage list implicitly recognizes the significance of the site for a larger group of people (national or even __________________ 77 78 79 80 20/24 Contribution by Temba Middelmann. See contribution by Sumatra Malik. On cultural policies and tourism, see examples cited in United Cities and Local Governments about Lisbon, Amsterdam and Montreal, Canada. See also contribution by Les oiseaux de passage on the tax to enter Venice, Italy, and its consequences. This implies staging entertainment rather than letting normal interactions unfold. See Marcus Zepf’s contribution, p. 2. 19-13014